Dual Credit Programs: Evidence, Equity, and Best Practices
This literature review synthesizes more than two decades of empirical research on dual credit and dual enrollment programs across the United States, with particular attention to implications for Hawaii. The paper examines general support for dual credit initiatives, enrollment outcomes, administrative benefits, student and educator perceptions, retention challenges, curricular design, equity concerns, teacher preparation, and the impact on colleges and universities. Evidence consistently demonstrates that dual credit participation increases college enrollment, particularly among underserved populations, yet gaps remain in retention, degree completion, and equitable access. The review identifies best practices and highlights the need for enhanced structural, financial, and psychosocial supports to ensure that all students — especially low-income, minority, and first-generation students — can successfully transition from high school to higher education.
- General Support for Dual Credit Programs: Historical and governmental foundations of dual credit support
- Goal of Increasing Enrollment: Dual credit's role in raising college enrollment rates
- Administrative Outcomes and Perceptions: Financial benefits and stakeholder perceptions of programs
- Retention Rates and Curricular Design: Retention challenges and subject-matter program structures
- Equity and Barriers to Access: Inequities in access, funding, and student supports
- Teacher Preparation: Training needs and instructor attitudes toward dual credit
- Impact on Colleges and Universities: How dual credit shapes higher education institutions
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What makes this paper effective
- The review covers a broad chronological range of sources — from Fincher-Ford (1996) to Rogers et al. (2018) — giving readers a clear sense of how the field has evolved over time.
- The paper consistently connects national research findings to Hawaii-specific data, grounding abstract policy recommendations in local context and making the review practically useful for state-level policymakers.
- Each thematic section synthesizes multiple studies rather than summarizing them individually, demonstrating genuine analytical integration of the literature.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper exemplifies thematic literature organization: rather than proceeding source by source, it groups studies by topic (enrollment, equity, teacher preparation, etc.) and draws comparisons across them. This approach allows the author to identify consensus findings, flag areas of mixed evidence, and articulate gaps that future research should address — the hallmarks of a strong literature review.
Structure breakdown
The paper opens with a framing introduction that maps the major themes, then moves through seven substantive sections covering: institutional and governmental support; enrollment outcomes; administrative and financial benefits alongside perceptions data; retention and curriculum; equity and access barriers; teacher preparation; and higher education impact. A reference list in APA format closes the paper. Each section follows a consistent logic: state the theme, present supporting evidence, note exceptions or mixed findings, and gesture toward implications for practice or future research.
General Support for Dual Credit Programs
The literature overall indicates "strong support" for dual credit programs since they have become more commonplace (Marshall & Andrews, 2002, p. 237). In states like Illinois, dual credit programs have paralleled legislation designed to promote social justice and advocacy in education (Andrews, 2001). Since the late 1990s, official and formal measures of dual credit program outcomes have taken into account student and parent reactions and perceptions, as well as those from educators and administrators (Marshall & Andrews, 2002). The literature on dual credit programs also demonstrates the need to engage community organizations and the media in promoting dual credit in a positive light, which raises awareness and increases parental involvement in student education (Andrews, 2001). A holistic approach to dual credit programs has elicited substantial general support for the integration of these programs throughout a state's educational system (Andrews, 2011; Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016).
Leadership is key to providing the structural and institutional support pathways for dual credit course options. The literature also shows how dual credit programs have universally been "state-driven" initiatives in postsecondary reform, indicating the fusion of educational philosophies and educational practices (Walsh, Brake & Choi, 2005, p. 199). While federal funding is critical, state-driven support for dual credit programs remains the most important source of revenue and philosophical support (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). Increased collaboration and formalized strategic partnerships between public school systems and colleges and universities of all types have also been the cornerstone of dual credit programs, which could just as easily have been linked more to the private sector (Walsh, Brake & Choi, 2005). While each state handles the funding for dual credit programs differently and offers different types of financial aid options, the body of literature shows that the most critical elements with regard to state and federal support include tuition assistance, reimbursement for transportation and books, and need-based aid (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). There is therefore great consensus in the literature related to the genesis and orientation of dual credit programs as being driven by top-down practices in government and educational leadership. Future research will reveal ways of improving the efficacy of strategic partnerships.
Goal of Increasing Enrollment
Another overarching theme in the literature relates to the ways dual credit programs almost instantly lead to increased enrollment in colleges and universities among underserved populations. Increasing enrollment rates in colleges and universities is, in fact, a stated goal in dual credit program development at the state level. The Andrews (2001) research on Illinois is one of the earliest studies to document enrollment trends in a single state, with the Welsh, Brake & Choi (2005) research on Kentucky also using raw data to demonstrate the successful integration of educational policy and practice: "to help institutions meet the state's reform goals for access and achievement in higher education" (p. 199). Similarly, the Chatman & Smith (1998) research shows how dual credit programs are linked with a number of measurable outcomes at both the student and administrative level. Overall, the research has been promising, showing that participation in these programs is a "strong predictor" of student enrollment in and completion of college education (Hoffman, Vargas & Santos, 2009, p. 44).
Research conclusively demonstrates the relationship between dual credit program participation and enrollment in community colleges, colleges, and universities, which in turn supports state funding by showing that programs are meeting their stated objectives. Dual enrollment programs, according to state-specific data, show that 81% of high school graduates in Hawaii who have dual credits enroll in college, compared with 52% of those who do not (Lee, 2016). A related goal in promoting dual credit programs is to increase college and university enrollment primarily among underserved and underrepresented student populations, which is also borne out in the empirical research. Economically disadvantaged students stand to benefit the most from dual enrollment and early college, going to college at nearly double the rate of their counterparts without dual credit (Trifonovitch, 2017). As Lee (2016) also notes, economically disadvantaged students with dual credits stay in college longer and have higher college completion rates as well.
Administrative Outcomes and Perceptions
A major theme in the literature is linked to the positive administrative outcomes associated with dual credit programs. Chatman & Smith (1998) show how dual credit programs actually improve financial management practices in the states where they are implemented, allowing public schools and state-supported institutions of higher learning to better align their educational programs with their budgets. Through strategic partnerships, all educational institutions can participate in sensible and effective resource allocation, human resources development, and opportunities for improving the state economy through improvements to the business and labor markets (Chatman & Smith, 1998). Fincher-Ford's (1996) preliminary assessment of dual credit programs is instrumental for outlining measurement and assessment methods that state boards of education have subsequently incorporated into their operational standards. Structural and funding issues are covered in the literature, showing that strategic partnerships formed between the public and private sectors — and also between government and non-governmental, non-profit organizations — are key. For example, high-profile funders like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation provide substantial support for dual enrollment and early college, and funding may also be derived from similar organizations (Hoffman, Vargas & Santos, 2009).
An interesting trend in the literature has been research assessing student perceptions and opinions regarding their experiences with dual credit programs. These studies employ methods such as self-report measures detailing student educational and career aspirations. The Smith (2007) research, for example, surveyed hundreds of high school students from rural areas in Kansas. Focus on rural populations is important in the dual credit literature because rural students are traditionally underserved. The results show a "significant and positive relationship" between the programs and educational aspirations (Smith, 2007, p. 371). Research on student perceptions of dual credit programs also includes studies showing how these programs have improved the self-efficacy of high school juniors and seniors at a critical juncture in their educational careers. Andrews (2004) indicates that whereas high school students without access to dual credit programs may express pessimistic perceptions of their educational future, those who do have access to dual credit options identify educational and career goals with confidence and determination. The Ozmun (2013) study is particularly instructive in showing the directionality of this relationship: students with higher self-efficacy were not necessarily more motivated to enroll in dual credit programs, whereas those who did enroll in dual credit programs exhibited a higher degree of self-efficacy thereafter.
Research on educator perceptions of dual credit programs is less conclusive than research on student perceptions. Some research shows that educators at both the high school and college level hold mixed or ambivalent attitudes toward dual credit programs. The most negative attitudes have been indicated in surveys of college instructors who "expressed their disdain" for teaching high school students they perceived as being ill-prepared (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016, p. 40). Research also shows that these types of perceptions can be changed through teacher professional development (Andrews, 2004; Bailey & Karp, 2003; Smith, 2007).
References
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