This paper examines the process of identity development among ethnic minority adolescents, with a focus on Hispanic and African-American youth. Drawing on multiple empirical studies, it reviews established identity status frameworks and ethnic identity models, then explores how factors such as parental racial socialization, foster care placement, drug use, and intergroup attitudes intersect with ethnic identity formation. The paper highlights key differences between ethnic groups and underscores the importance of culturally informed interventions by parents, teachers, and clinicians to support healthy identity development during adolescence.
The paper demonstrates effective literature synthesis: rather than summarizing each study in isolation, the author weaves findings together thematically — linking identity status frameworks to ethnic identity models, then applying both to specific outcomes such as behavior problems, drug use, and ethnocentrism. This cumulative approach builds an argument rather than a mere annotated bibliography.
The paper opens with demographic context establishing why the topic matters, then introduces general identity status theory before layering in ethnic-specific models. Subsequent paragraphs address distinct outcome domains (social competence, parental socialization, substance abuse, intergroup attitudes) in a logical progression from foundational concepts to applied concerns. A brief reference list in APA format closes the paper.
Adolescence is a crucial stage in life for the formation of identity. This transitional period between childhood and adulthood is marked by change in the physical, emotional, spiritual, psychological, and social aspects of an individual's life. Although there is a general process that identity formation adheres to, there are individual and group differences in development, such as those observed among ethnic minority adolescents. It is important for these differences among ethnically diverse adolescents — like Hispanic and African-American youth — to be understood and addressed by influential figures in their lives, such as parents, teachers, and clinicians. Doing so would ensure and facilitate healthy, supported identity development.
As cited by Torres (2004), the 2000 census reported a dramatic increase in Latinos in the United States, making them the largest minority group in the nation. Between 1990 and 2000, the Latino population in the United States increased by 57.9%, the greatest increase of any ethnic or racial group during that period. This dramatic growth results in a more diverse population, including that observed among adolescents in school and community settings. Therefore, it is important that appropriate and effective resources be available for ethnically diverse adolescents in order to facilitate healthy identity development.
In general, identity development during adolescence may be conceptualized as falling into discrete identity status categories. Allison (2001) describes how the Revised Extended Version of the Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status (EOM-EIS-2) can be used to assess which identity status an adolescent is currently experiencing. The four identity statuses, listed from least to most sophisticated, are diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement. Several factors influence the status of individual adolescents, including psychosocial and physical factors.
The process by which ethnic identity is established in adolescence was discussed by Torres (2004). This author described a model focusing on the formation of ethnic identity and how adolescents come to understand their own ethnicity. There are three distinct stages to this model that develop sequentially. The first stage is Unexamined Ethnic Identity, characterized by initial consideration of the concept of ethnicity. The second stage is Ethnic Identity Search/Moratorium, which involves the initiation of an identity search. The third and final stage is Ethnic Identity Achievement, characterized by a clear, highly developed sense and understanding of one's ethnicity (Torres, 2004).
Rotheram-Borus (1989) investigated the relationships between ethnicity and identity status, and further, the relationship between identity status and social competence, behavior problems, and self-esteem. The researcher used the identity statuses of achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion described above, and ethnic status was also assessed. Results indicated that white students in the upper high school grades were more likely than minority students to have higher moratorium scale scores and to perceive themselves as committed to their ethnic role. In addition, the study determined that there were no significant ethnic differences in the relationships between identity status and social competence, behavior problems, or self-esteem. Interestingly, across all ethnic groups, ratings of moratorium — considered to be the second-most sophisticated identity status — were associated with significantly more behavior problems, decreased social competence, and lower self-esteem (Rotheram-Borus, 1989).
Ethnic identity development is a key component of adolescence. Ethnic identity is essentially the "aspect of identity related to one's membership in an ethnic group" (Greig, 2003, p. 317). Greig (2003) explained how ethnic identity has marked implications for mental health, and that African-American and Hispanic adolescents who have effectively developed their ethnic identity — or who have achieved a secure sense of themselves as members of an ethnic group — tend to have increased levels of self-esteem and better overall mental health.
Especially in major urban centers, the majority of at-risk adolescents are Latino and African-American youth (Yancey, 1992). Yancey (1992) examined identity development among ethnic minority adolescents in the foster care system. This researcher explained how the occurrence of societal problems — such as unintentional pregnancy, childbearing, substance abuse, underachievement, early discontinuation of education, homelessness, and dependency on social service and mental health resources — was disproportionately pronounced among ethnic minorities. With regard to ethnic minority youth in the foster care system, Yancey (1992, p. 819) "postulated that their social maladaptation is reflective of identity disturbances created by the negative images of African-Americans and Latinos perpetuated by the dominant society and unfiltered by optimal parental racial socialization." This statement expresses the profound influence that societal attitudes can have on the identity development of ethnic minority adolescents, and points toward interventions that could improve racial socialization practices among parents.
The effect that parents have on the identity development of Latino and African-American adolescents was investigated by Hughes (2003). Two dimensions of racial socialization — cultural socialization and preparation for bias — were examined. Results indicated no significant differences between the ethnic groups in the frequency of cultural socialization; however, African-American parents were found to report more frequent preparation for bias. These findings may indicate that African-American adolescents have expectations of discrimination embedded in their identity development as a result of parental racial socialization (Hughes, 2003).
African-Americans, although demonstrating higher ethnic identity scores and self-esteem scores than the other groups, did not show significantly correlated levels of ethnic identity and ethnocentrism. This diversity in findings across ethnic groups warrants further research. Taken together, the body of literature reviewed here underscores the importance of culturally sensitive approaches by parents, educators, and clinicians to support healthy identity development in Hispanic and African-American adolescents. Understanding the nuances of ethnic identity formation — and its connections to mental health, social behavior, substance use, and intergroup relations — is essential for designing effective interventions that serve these growing populations.
Allison, B. (2001). Interpersonal identity formation during early adolescence. Adolescence, 36, 509–523.
Greig, R. (2003). Ethnic identity development: Implications for mental health in African-American and Hispanic adolescents. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24(3), 317–331.
Hughes, D. (2003). Correlates of African-American and Latino parents' messages to children about ethnicity and race: A comparative study of racial socialization. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(1–2), 15–33.
James, W., Kim, G., & Armijo, E. (2000). The influence of ethnic identity on drug use among ethnic minority adolescents. Journal of Drug Education, 30(3), 265–280.
Negy, C., Shreve, T., Jensen, B., & Uddin, N. (2003). Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and ethnocentrism: A study of social identity vs. multicultural theory of development. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9(4), 333–344.
Rotheram-Borus, M. (1989). Ethnic differences in adolescents' identity status and associated behavior problems. Journal of Adolescence, 12(4), 361–374.
Torres, V. (2004). Influences on ethnic identity development of Latino college students in the first two years of college. Journal of College Student Development, 45(3), 333–347.
Yancey, A. (1992). Identity formation and social maladaptation in foster adolescents. Adolescence, 27(108), 819–831.
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