Four Types of Criminal Profiles in Forensic Investigation

Introduction to Criminal Profiling

Four types of profiles are used in forensic criminal investigation: (1) the offender profile, (2) the victim profile, (3) the DNA profile, and (4) the geographic profile. Offender profiling involves obtaining information from law enforcement regarding the types of people who commit crimes (Douglas & Burgess, 1986). From the data compiled about crimes and the individuals who commit them, an offender profile is developed to identify the type of person who might commit a particular crime. These types are categorized according to the crime, with a specific profile developed for each specific offense. For example, the profile of an individual who might be an arsonist would differ from the profile of an individual who might be a drug dealer.

Victim profiling involves creating a database of information on crime victims obtained from law enforcement. Specific crimes are linked to specific types of victims, and a profile is created of individuals who are likely to be victimized in a specific crime — much in the same way that a profile is created of an individual likely to engage in a specific crime.

DNA profiling is conducted by obtaining genetic data on an individual. Specifically, it entails collecting the variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) at loci on a chromosome. VNTRs are what distinguish DNA sequences. Obtaining VNTRs is analogous to obtaining fingerprints — it does not require a person's fingers; all it requires is a cell from the body. A hair, blood sample, nail clipping, or piece of skin will suffice (Panneerchelvam & Norazmi, 2003).

Geographical profiling looks at where crimes are committed and develops a profile of places, indicating where crimes are likely to occur based on the geographical characteristics of a location. For example, if a building is abandoned, it might be considered to have a geographic profile suggesting that drug use could be taking place there.

A thorough psychological profile can be created by combining individual profile types. For instance, a victim profile could be linked to a specific type of offender operating within a specific geographic profile. Even a DNA profile could play a part, as DNA sequences tend to vary by geography as well (Freeman, 2018).

Offender and Victim Profiling

An example of an offender profile would be an individual who has robbed a convenience store. He has tattoos on his legs, is armed, always takes two cartons of Marlboro Reds after robbing the cash register by climbing over the counter, and escapes in a waiting car outside. The offender's race, height, weight, age, sex, and other characteristics would also serve to construct his profile.

Victim profiling could also be applied by examining the clerk on duty at the time of a robbery. Is there something significant about the clerk? Are there any ethnic, sex, age, weight, or height characteristics that might fit a pattern of offender types who prey on particular victim types?

DNA and Geographic Profiling

If an altercation breaks out and the offender's blood, skin, or hair is left at the crime scene, a DNA profile could be obtained and used to link the offender to other crimes — provided his DNA is already on record.

Geographical profiling looks at the physical and social context of where a crime takes place. This profile could be coupled with other profile types by examining what part of town a crime occurred in, what time of day or night it took place, how heavy traffic was at the time, whether the location was empty or busy, and whether other crimes have occurred nearby.

An example of a DNA profile in action would be at a murder scene where hair samples are collected. One hair matches the DNA of the victim; another matches a sample from an ex-convict convicted of rape and murder who escaped from prison six months prior. The geographical profile of the scene would help reveal more about both the victim and the offender, and an offender profile along with a victim profile could provide information corroborating the DNA profile constructed from physical evidence at the scene. All four profiles would be useful in constructing a narrative of the individuals who could or could not be likely participants in the crime.

Case Example: Convenience Store Robbery

Returning to the convenience store robbery, the offender profile could be coupled with a geographic profile by examining what part of town the store is located in, what time the robbery occurs, how heavy the traffic is, whether the store is empty or busy with customers, and whether other robberies have taken place nearby.

Victim profiling could be applied by examining the clerk on duty. Are there ethnic, sex, age, weight, or height characteristics that might fit a pattern associated with offenders who target particular victim types? If an altercation results in the offender leaving biological material at the scene, DNA evidence could be collected and used to link the offender to other crimes if his profile is already on record.

References

Douglas, J. E., & Burgess, A. E. (1986). Criminal profiling: A viable investigative tool against violent crime. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 55, 9.

Freeman, S. (2018). How DNA profiling works. Retrieved from https://science.howstuffworks.com/dna-profiling.htm

Panneerchelvam, S., & Norazmi, M. N. (2003). Forensic DNA profiling and database. The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences: MJMS, 10(2), 20.