Hispanic and Latino Labels: Identity, Politics, and Race

Introduction: The Politics of Ethnic Labeling

Labeling people by their race is often a controversial subject in political and social circles. Why classify people as Hispanics, Latinos, or African Americans when they can all be simply called Americans by virtue of their citizenship in the United States? It appears, however, that there are political gains to be made through ethnic labeling, and this kind of classification can be very damaging or restrictive. For example, a person who comes from a Spanish-speaking family and is labeled a Latino is expected to behave in certain race-specific ways — to be particularly "hip," an expert in salsa or other forms of dancing, not academically inclined, from a poor family, and supportive of a particular political party. But what if that individual wants to defy all of these restrictive attributes because he or she is not simply "a Latino" but an individual with his or her own beliefs, values, ways of thinking, social approach, and political affiliation? It is not always easy to behave in ways seen as uncharacteristic of one's labeled race when such ethnic labels are firmly attached.

A program on NPR's Talk of the Nation featured Professor Harry Pachon, president of the Tomás Rivera Policy Institute, to discuss "Latino and Hispanic identity in the U.S." The show aired on September 30, 2002, and included a caller who offered this insightful observation about ethnic labeling and its impact:

"I'm a little concerned whenever I hear the term 'Latino' or 'Hispanic,' particularly in the context of the United States, because these are labels that I find most of us immigrants only learn once we immigrate into the United States. What happens with these terms is that they are oftentimes used by an elite — the elite from the Latin American countries of origin. They come here and use these labels to wash over many of the differences — racial and other differences — that exist in those countries. People are then asked to vote for and support a particular representative or leader because of their national origin, oftentimes ignoring the fact that that leader's interests conflict with their own. This is something that is terribly upsetting to me, particularly when you consider that racism and classism in Latin America is alive and well like it has never been before." (NPR, discussion with Prof. Pachon, 9/30/2002)

Hispanics and Latinos — whatever political groups choose to call them — are, like all other racial minorities, victims of political manipulation. Many do not refer to themselves as Hispanics or Latinos, and some are genuinely confused by these classifications because they do not feel they fit into either category. These are simply ethnic labels used by the government, and strictly within U.S. borders at that. Outside the United States, these same individuals would most likely simply be called Americans. Their racial classification is not a significant issue around the world, yet for the U.S. government it appears to be a primary concern, which is why so many racial categories exist.

Origins of the Hispanic and Latino Labels

These labels are political constructs used almost exclusively within a U.S. context. As Bernal et al. (1994) explain:

"'Hispanic' was a label adopted by the federal government in the 1970s for the purpose of classifying census data and administering federal programs. The term 'Hispanic' is used to refer to people from Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Central or South America, as well as to people from other Spanish cultures or origins. In parts of California, the preferred term is 'Latino.' 'Latino' is the term of reference that best fits the criteria of respecting the diverse national origins of Latin American populations. 'Latino' also connotes cultural pluralism by virtue of being a Spanish word. Alternatively, the term 'Hispanic,' an English term, is assimilationist to the extent that it connotes an incorporation into mainstream U.S. white European values with some degree of cultural distinction (legacy from Spain)." (Bernal et al., 1994)

It is easy to see why these labels are considered inappropriate. When they were first created, they described a group of people who spoke a certain language, came from a particular financial background, and were largely uneducated and poor. With the passage of time, even though circumstances changed somewhat, the basic attributes associated with the Latino group remained fixed in the public mind — largely because of the labels themselves. Allen (1990) provides useful historical context:

"In the 1970s, we gained an awareness of the new social reality that Spanish-speaking groups from Latin America had become the largest foreign-language community in the United States. Many of the new immigrants were poor and unskilled, and many were strikingly unassimilated. The new reality needed a new word. Bureaucrats, academics, and the press wanted a generic term specifically for the masses of unassimilated Latin Americans, so the name 'Hispanics' was coined from the adjective Hispanic and soon was in wide use. 'Latinos,' also drawn straight from the adjectival combining form, competes, but is not heard as often as 'Hispanics.'" (Allen, 1990, pp. 82–83)

Labeling Theory and Its Social Consequences

One of the most important observations about ethnic labeling is that people often begin to behave the way they are expected to behave because of the labels assigned to them. Labeling theory suggests that when individuals are labeled, they consciously or unconsciously begin acting in label-specific ways, making themselves victims of social or political classification. These Latino and Hispanic labels originated in the 1970s and initially referred to groups of Latin American immigrants who were mostly uneducated and unskilled. Even three decades later, those same perceptions persist about Latin Americans living in the United States — a persistence that can be attributed in large part to the enduring power of political labels.

In many cases, labeling leads to the development of anti-social behavior as well. This occurs when people are regularly labeled and expected to exhibit certain characteristics. African American youth, for example, have often been labeled as aggressive, violent, and hostile, and research has found that many young African Americans residing in poor areas do develop these traits — at least in part as a response to social expectations. Similarly, labeling people as Latinos or Hispanics pressures them to exhibit the traits that society expects of members of their group.

Labeling theory directly explains this connection. The theory addresses criminal activity and anti-social behavior and argues that rigid social rules and expectations are directly responsible for the development of what it calls "eccentric" personality traits. As Calhoun writes, "Labeling theory also helps explain the longer-term consequences of a deviant label on a person's social identity" (Calhoun, Light, & Keller, 1989). In other words, people may engage in socially unacceptable behavior because they have suffered under certain labels from a very young age.

It is important to understand that the type of behavior exhibited by people of a certain racial group is strongly linked to social factors — family, peers, and environment all have a profound impact on behavior and personality. This helps explain why people from certain cultures and social groups are more likely to develop anti-social personality traits. Beyond criminal and immoral activities, there are also non-criminal behavior patterns that emerge from mistaken social expectations rooted in labels: disinterest in academic pursuits, emphasis on activities stereotypically associated with a particular label, dressing in a certain manner, and so on.