Managerial Motivation Across Generational Cohorts

The Strauss–Howe Generational Theory

Commended by Newt Gingrich, former House Speaker, and Al Gore, former Vice President of the United States, among other national leaders, Howe and Strauss's work titled Generations (1991) has received acclaim as a wide-ranging — if slightly alarming — review of the direction the nation is headed. The authors suggest that the country's history may be understood as a string of generational profiles, commencing from the year 1584 and extending to the present day. They boldly theorize that all generations may be regarded as belonging to one of four recurring types, sequentially repeated in a set pattern. Their framework enables one to chart a recurrent cycle within the nation's history — characterized by secular challenges and religious revivals — from the colonial era to the 21st century. The book is both an uplifting historical account and an insightful reordering of how history informs people's expectations about the current century.

The aforementioned book covers what came to be known as the Strauss–Howe generational theory, which delineates a theorized repetitive generational cycle within the history of the nation. The theorists established the basis for their hypothesis in a book that presents US history as a succession of generational profiles dating back to 1584. A later work, The Fourth Turning (1997), expands the generational theory by paying attention to the nation's traditional fourfold generational cycle and its repetitive mood periods. Since then, the theorists have used various publications to elaborate further on their ideas.

Howe and Strauss's (1991) work combines prediction with historical fact. They provided historical detail on prior and current generations while making several predictions, many of which pertained to the Millennials — who were young children at the time the authors began their work. Consequently, the authors lacked adequate historical data concerning this generation. Their first work, Generations (1991), explains American history as a progression of generational profiles of Anglo-Americans between 1584 and the present. It hypothesizes a trend of four repetitive stages, generational forms, and a recurring cycle of secular challenges and religious revivals, from the colonial era to the 21st century.

According to the authors, the term "social generation" may be defined as the sum total of all individuals born across approximately two decades, or across the span of a single life stage out of four: childhood, youth, midlife, and later life. They identify generations by seeking cohorts of this duration that share the following conditions: First, people belonging to a generation share a common age location in history — that is, they experience important social developments and historical events while passing through the same stage of life. From this perspective, individuals belonging to a given generation are permanently shaped by the era they inhabit during childhood and youth, leading them to share particular behaviors and views. Cognizant of these shared characteristics and life experiences, individuals belonging to a given generation also display a sense of perceived belonging with their cohort (Strauss & Howe, 1991).

Howe and Strauss claim that their description of "generations" is grounded in the work of numerous social theorists and authors, including Ibn Khaldun, Polybius, and other early writers, as well as contemporary social theorists such as José Ortega y Gasset, John Stuart Mill, Karl Mannheim, François Mentré, Émile Littré, and Auguste Comte.

Given the above theory, one general strategy for motivating the workforce across generations could be to celebrate their secular and religious values and to build company values and benefit packages around them. Individual religious and secular values can thus be used to motivate all generational cohorts. For instance, religious festivities can be recognized through company holidays. In a corporate setting, managers can further design motivational packages based around historical events that were influential for particular generational cohorts, celebrating that history through themed office events. This approach can allow one generation to understand the perspectives of another, fostering a measure of respect and mutual understanding. Similar strategies can be applied to social events, especially when dealing with Generation X and Millennials. These two generations, though closely linked in age, can hold very different values regarding particular social events. Encouraging open discussion of different social events and viewpoints can build camaraderie and understanding across generational lines — though care must be taken to maintain a positive framework, as poorly managed discussions could deepen rather than bridge the divide.

Motivational Differences Among Generational Cohorts

Drawing on earlier research into inter-generational gaps, Katarzyna (2014) aimed to examine whether distinctions in motivational factors were, in fact, present across different generations within Irish organizations. Using data collected via a Motivational Factors Questionnaire, the researcher scrutinized cross-sectional differences among three clusters of the Irish workforce: Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y (Katarzyna, 2014). The findings do not fully support the generational stereotypes common in popular media and management literature. The examination revealed the existence of a few deep-seated differences between generational drivers, but age may account for these differences rather than generation per se. Despite being statistically significant, the distinctions may not present substantial practical challenges for management strategy overall (Katarzyna, 2014). Moreover, a review of existing literature reveals some incongruities, demonstrating that current studies do not always produce identical outcomes.

For a more detailed insight into the factors motivating Generation Y, Generation X, and Baby Boomers, the author examined the three generations against five motivational elements: leisure time, compensation, increased responsibility, ability to advance, and work atmosphere. Differences discovered, though statistically significant, do not appreciably affect the organization — perhaps owing to the various life stages exhibited within an age group. This does not, however, eliminate the reality that different age groups hold different perspectives shaped by the distinct social climates they were raised in and the diversity of experiences within their lives (Katarzyna, 2014). This may imply that while individuals within these groups differ from one another, they are relatively similar within the workplace setting. Katarzyna (2014) acknowledges that companies must cultivate an atmosphere of attentiveness and respect in order to bridge every age group toward developing and maintaining a productive workforce.

Tan, Rajah, and Wan (2014) discuss organizational justice as a mediator between generational diversity and motivation. While most empirical evidence and literature supports variation in generational preferences regarding motivation — and supports tailoring benefit packages to better fit each generation — awareness is needed of the fact that organizational justice may continue to shape outcomes. Improved understanding of motivation models and generational concerns may still not be sufficient to improve personnel productivity, since motivation packages are evaluated relative to what others receive, traversing social interactions in which equity is assessed. The scholars concluded that the perceived favorability of motivation packages typically determines subsequent performance.

Wong, Lang, Coulon, and Gardiner (2008) conducted a study to gauge whether gaps in motivational factors and personality traits are evident across Generation Y, Generation X, and Baby Boomers. The Motivation and Occupational Personality Questionnaires were employed to study cross-sectional motivational and personality factor disparities across the three generations. Study findings did not support the generational stereotypes widely cited by media and management literature. In particular, few meaningful distinctions were evident among the three studied generations, and the differences that were noted were associated more with age than with generation. A major limitation of Wong and colleagues' (2008) study was their use of cross-sectional data. The study's practical implications included highlighting the importance of dealing with individuals by attending to personal differences rather than relying on generation-based stereotypes, which may not be as influential as available literature suggests (Wong et al., 2008).

Workforce Motivation Theories

Palliam and Ankli (2012) reveal Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to be effective in motivating organizational workforces, recommending it as a comprehensive motivational framework. Under this view, motivation takes on an additional dimension, making it essential to account for controlled motivation, autonomous motivation, and the concept of motivation as a performance determinant. The authors began by identifying fundamental assumptions about motivation: that individuals possess the ability to act responsibly, wish to succeed at work and play, and naturally aspire to learn and understand. They then addressed several key facets linked to SDT, including cognitive, psychomotor, and affective development. They conclude by considering self-perception, individual emotional and psychological requirements, culture, goals, and social environmental effects as major issues guiding individuals' capacity for self-actualization. Their findings exhibit SDT's applicability to discussions of organizational behavior and indicate extrinsic motivation's adverse effects on intrinsic motivation. Job satisfaction is attained when personality is employed as a contributor to motivation in service of a mutually meaningful goal. A person is most creative and inventive when inspired chiefly by personal interest, internal satisfaction, and task-related challenges rather than by incentives or external pressure.

The practical implication of Palliam and Ankli's (2012) work is that HR practitioners and management must consider issues linked to controlled motivation, autonomous motivation, and the concept of motivation as a performance determinant. Diverse work-related attitudinal linkages require diverse types of motivation. The authors contribute to the scholarly motivation literature by emphasizing that independence, relatedness, and competence in SDT are vital to psychological development, health, and optimal functioning across all disciplines, and by demonstrating that extrinsic rewards largely undermine intrinsic motivation.

Oudejans (2007) found a negative correlation between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, extrinsic motivation was associated negatively with job satisfaction, while intrinsic motivation displayed a positive association (Oudejans, 2007). For instance, call center workers exhibit greater extrinsic motivation and lesser intrinsic motivation compared to nursing staff, and also report lower satisfaction levels. The study found that people in call center roles more strongly influence the relationship between job satisfaction and both forms of motivation. Equity theory was found to have a positive link with extrinsic motivation, and the expectancy theory was found to have a positive link to both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, making it more applicable to call center workers overall.

Walker and Smithers (2000) refer to studies indicating that personnel motivation in every industry is affected by work culture and climate. Their construction site-based study investigated the impacts of workplace atmosphere on the motivation and demotivation of construction workers. Data gathered supported the hypothesis that construction site atmosphere does indeed affect employees' motivation levels. The researchers identified numerous variables — including lengthy work hours, an aggressive leadership style, disorganization, and non-recognition of effort — as significantly related to demotivation. The outcomes offer a useful foundation for understanding the construction sector's capacity to cultivate a more appealing workplace atmosphere for its personnel.

Ramadanty and Martinus (2012) assert that motivation essentially guides all human activities and constitutes a force propelling workers toward accomplishing organizational objectives. Organizational communication has come to be seen as one of the most prominent corporate activities capable of motivating personnel. The authors aimed to reveal how organizational communication influences personnel motivation, identifying a research focus on the link between motivation and communication facets including interpersonal communication, nonverbal communication, communication climate, and leadership. Using a descriptive qualitative approach with data gathered via literature analysis, they found that interpersonal communication, leadership, communication climate, and nonverbal communication all contribute greatly to cultivating personnel motivation (Ramadanty & Martinus, 2012). Nonverbal communication — particularly facial expression, eye contact, and body language — contributes somewhat more profoundly to shaping positive motivation. The authors regard the quality of leaders' interpersonal communication as evaluated on the basis of satisfaction with information shared between the workforce and managers, and note that honesty and sincerity in downward communication are hallmarks of smooth superior-subordinate interaction.

According to Wesley (2013), psychologists, behavioral scientists, leadership theorists, and sociologists have concentrated on analyzing human motivation — and workforce motivation specifically — for over a century. Insights into the determinants of workforce motivation prove crucial to managers focused on organizational performance as well as, more broadly, to national competitiveness in the international marketplace (Wesley, 2013). Wesley's mixed-methods research — via direct observation, survey, and interviewing — explored staff motivation within a production firm located in Nebraska. Personnel motivation factors were scrutinized using grounded theory technique, together with information collected through quantitative approaches. A quantitative survey was devised on the basis of Herzberg's Two-Factor motivational model (Herzberg, 1959). The congruence or absence thereof among motivating factors at the company versus Herzberg's identified factors was studied by adopting a qualitative interpretive strategy and integrating quantitative and qualitative information through matrix integration and discussion. Research findings inform scholars and managers, and facilitate the development of a new personnel training curriculum that incorporates individual employee motivation factors (Wesley, 2013).

Behavioral scientist Herzberg (1959) put forward his motivator-hygiene, or Two-Factor Theory, which claims that certain job factors lead to satisfaction while others merely prevent dissatisfaction. The theorist asserts that "No Satisfaction" and "No Dissatisfaction" represent the true opposites of "Satisfaction" and "Dissatisfaction," respectively, and uses this distinction to classify job factors into two groups.

Herzberg's hygiene factors constitute job elements central to workplace motivation. While they do not maintain long-term satisfaction, their absence will result in dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors (also called maintenance factors or "dissatisfiers") may be defined as extrinsic elements whose reasonable presence in a workplace sufficiently pacifies workers to prevent dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1959). They describe workplace conditions or atmosphere. Hygiene factors include: wages, which must be fair, appropriate, and on par with the industry structure; administrative and corporate policies, which ought not to be overly rigid and should maintain transparency and fairness; physical workplace conditions, which should be hygienic, secure, and safe; fringe benefits, including healthcare insurance, employee assistance programs, and familial benefits; status, with employees expecting a recognized and well-maintained position within the company; interpersonal relations, requiring appropriate, cordial dealings among colleagues, managers, and subordinates, with no issues of discord or harassment; and job security, guaranteed by the firm.

Motivational factors — Herzberg (1959) holds that hygiene factors are not motivators. Motivators, or "satisfiers," are intrinsic factors that give rise to positive satisfaction and drive personnel to deliver superior performance. Motivators identified by the theorist include: recognition, whereby a worker expects acknowledgment for achievements; sense of accomplishment, whereby each task carried out is linked to a positive outcome tied to an organizational goal; opportunities for promotion and growth, whereby a company provides its personnel avenues for development; responsibility, whereby personnel are given ownership of their jobs through minimizing control while retaining accountability; and job meaningfulness, whereby one's job is adequately interesting, thought-provoking, and meaningful (Herzberg, 1959).

Herzberg's (1959) theory is not without limitations. It fails to account for situational variables, and while the theorist hypothesized a link between productivity and satisfaction, his research concentrated only on the latter. The theory has also been criticized for limited reliability, as raters may analyze identical responses differently. Additionally, the theory has an element of bias because it is grounded in natural personnel reactions when asked about sources of workplace dissatisfaction and satisfaction, leading respondents to ascribe dissatisfaction to external factors while attributing satisfaction to themselves. Lastly, blue-collar employees are largely overlooked. Despite these shortcomings, the theory remains widely accepted. According to the Two-Factor model, management must ensure the appropriateness of hygiene factors to prevent dissatisfaction, while also ensuring that interesting and gratifying work is assigned to inspire best performance. The theory underlines job enrichment as a means to motivate personnel and improve work quality.