Millennialism in America: Prophets, Fear, and Faith

Introduction to Millennialism in America

Charismatic prophets and millennial philosophy have played a major role in the social fabric of American society. The early Puritanical movements that blossomed in England and spread to the New World were the beginning signs of what would later be called the First and Second Great Awakenings. These Christian underpinnings of American religious discourse have at times gone underground and at other times bubbled to the surface. Even when prophetic millennial movements distance themselves far from Christianity, they share certain elements in common that make them a uniquely American phenomenon.

The term millennialism is used to refer to the notion that "Christ will establish a one-thousand year reign of the saints on earth before the Last Judgment" (Landes 1999). There are numerous interpretations of millennial ideology: some pessimistic in nature and others optimistic. A pessimistic view can be called "catastrophic," corresponding to the belief that hellfire and brimstone will engulf all of humanity at the end of the said millennium (Wells n.d.). This period of trauma will be like the purging of a sinful race of beings, possibly followed by an era of heaven on earth. A more optimistic viewpoint posits that the millennium of Christ will be one of human evolution and progress toward a more mature spiritual nature. First arising in the 19th century in America, the progressive view of millennialism is not uncommon among new religious movements, including those that would otherwise fall under the rubric of New Age.

Rather than bifurcate millennial movements into optimistic and pessimistic, or catastrophic and progressive, Landes (1999) claims that one end of the millennial spectrum represents "imperial, hierarchical visions of the world to come, a kingdom ruled over by a just if authoritarian imperial figure who would conquer the forces of chaos and establish the true order of society." Another millennial view presents "a demotic vision of a world of holy anarchy, where dominion of man over man ceased from the world" (Landes 1999). Millennialism is nothing new and is not at all unique to America; however, the philosophy has pervaded American history, culture, and religious consciousness.

There is a reason why millennialism in America has assumed Christian overtones. Most of the founders of the nation were Christian Europeans whose worldview encompassed Biblical dogma. From the Christian standpoint, a Second Coming of Christ was inevitable and would take place at a certain time and place. Jewish messianic lore also posits a sort of millennialism. Yet millennialism in America never became truly syncretic or eclectic. Even movements that are more New Age in nature tend to draw more heavily from Christianity than from any other religious tradition.

Core Features of American Millennial Movements

Even the Seneca Prophet of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, named Handsome Lake, was heavily influenced by contact with European conquerors and their Christian religious traditions. "The rise of Handsome Lake's religion was more successful than most religions during that time, apparently because his code combined traditional Iroquois religion with white Christian values" ("Handsome Lake and Cornplanter," n.d.). Handsome Lake went so far as to support witch hunting, which may have endeared him to the more puritanical factions of the era. Parker (1913) notes that "Handsome Lake believed the world would end (by fire) in the year 2100; he predicted the destruction of the environment, famines, and war." The 2100 date appears unique among new religious movements, messianic movements, and millennialism in America. Handsome Lake would continue to craft a unique syncretic Christian-Iroquois identity that characterizes multiculturalism in America.

There are several important features of Handsome Lake's legacy that set the stage for subsequent millennial movements, from John Smith's Mormonism to Elisabeth Claire Prophet's Church Universal and Triumphant. These core features of millennialism in America include: (a) the presence of a charismatic prophetic figure who helps lead followers into the light before, during, and after the End Times period; (b) a mythos of collective persecution, and the use of an external scapegoat of political, social, and/or religious oppression; (c) the use of fear to cultivate psychological submission; and (d) the promotion of a doctrine of purity versus sin.

With these four main features in mind, it is easy to see why Christian followers are particularly susceptible to millennialism. In fact, Christianity itself is a millennial movement that has become codified into a social and political institution. The New Testament is based on the story of a charismatic prophetic figure who ushers in a radical spiritual revolution in which a Judgment Day will take place. Such a myth is by no means a Christian creation; thousands of years before Christ, similar visions had perpetuated in human societies, from the Zoroastrians to the Egyptians. What made Christianity unique was the strength of Jesus Christ's figure and the stranglehold it would come to have over the people of the Middle East and later, Europe.

Charismatic prophets vary in their gender and approach to millennial doctrine. Some, like Elisabeth Claire Prophet, draw heavily from Eastern religious traditions and synthesize those with millennial Christianity in a sort of New Age blend. Other charismatic leaders, like Yahweh ben Yahweh, have been criminal masterminds. Hulon Mitchell, also known as Yahweh ben Yahweh, was convicted of murder. Yet his story reflects a tragic means of compensating for years of actual persecution.

Persecution Myths and the Role of the Oppressor

The mythos of collective persecution is central to the Christian identity and is thoroughly embedded in the Christian Bible. Christian history in Europe is one of both actual and imagined persecution. Imagined religious persecution during the time of the British Enlightenment led a group of religious conservative ideologues to colonize the New World, commit genocide, and destroy thousands of years of rich Native American culture. Ironically, Handsome Lake would come to appropriate the Christian rhetoric for use on — and possibly against — his own people. The figure of Handsome Lake is remarkable in that he built upon the notion of a collective oppressor within the very framework of the oppressor's religion.

Yahweh ben Yahweh cultivated and perpetuated "a theory of the white man as devil" (Taylor 1992). This theory bore the same seeds of truth that Handsome Lake's theories did. Both Native Americans and African Americans had been systematically persecuted, tortured, and killed, often in the name of Christianity. What Yahweh ben Yahweh did was give a rallying cry to underprivileged Black communities in Miami and elsewhere in the nation to rise up against the oppressor — an uprising framed entirely in a religious context.

A similar phenomenon took place during the American Revolution, when the Reverend Samuel Sherwood claimed that the British Crown represented an "anti-Christian tyranny" and that the aggression shown by the British toward its colony was a "sin" (Hatch 1974: 407). From this apocalyptic point of view, according to Hatch (1974), "America's victory would initiate Christ's millennial kingdom" (407). Unlike Handsome Lake, Yahweh ben Yahweh distanced himself from the religion of the oppressor and instead embraced Jewish symbolism as a counter-narrative.

Conclusion: The Enduring American Millennial Tradition

The Christian story is one of persecution and struggle against oppressors. In fact, the American mythos and the Christian mythos share a common millennial doctrine. The First and Second Great Awakenings represented the reinvention of Christianity for an American audience. Pilgrims from Enlightenment England clung to outmoded religious beliefs, finding temporary solace in the territory of the New World. A sense of being persecuted pervaded Puritan thought so thoroughly that "by the time America's victory seemed assured, the rhetoric of New England sermons was brimming with euphoric images of America's role in hastening the kingdom" (Hatch 1974: 407).

The Native American millennial movement under Handsome Lake, the Black Power millennial movement under Yahweh ben Yahweh, and the various New Age millennial movements all share core elements that also created common social bonds against perceived persecution. Each movement features a charismatic leader, a narrative of collective suffering, the strategic use of fear, and a call to spiritual purification. These enduring features explain why millennialism has remained a persistent and powerful force in American religious life — from the earliest Puritan settlements to the present day.

References

Brom, Robert H. 2004. History of the Jehovah's Witnesses. Catholic Answers. Retrieved from

Hatch, Nathan O. 1974. The origins of civil millennialism in America: New England clergymen, war with France, and the Revolution. The William and Mary Quarterly 31(3): 407–430.

Harris, William. 1911. "Mormons." The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

Landes, Richard. 1999. Millennialism. Retrieved from

Parker, A.C. 1913. [As cited in text regarding Handsome Lake's prophecies.]

Taylor, Jared. 1992. Paved with Good Intentions: The Failure of Race Relations in Contemporary America. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 90–91.

Washington Post Staff. 1997. The Cult Controversy. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/cult/cultmain.htm

Wells, Anton. n.d. Millennial Cults: What Are They and What Are Some Misconceptions We Should Be Aware Of? Retrieved from http://www.ecst.csuchico.edu/~rsmith/overview.htm