Philosophical Influences on the U.S. Constitution Explained
This essay examines the philosophical and external influences that shaped the United States Constitution. It focuses primarily on the contributions of John Locke, whose social contract theory and concept of natural rights informed the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights, and Montesquieu, whose theory of separation of powers structured the three branches of American government. The essay also considers how international treaties and the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights have influenced constitutional interpretation, explores the ongoing debate between federal and state authority, and discusses the historical growth of presidential power over the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.
- Introduction: Overview of the Constitution and its philosophical context
- John Locke and Natural Rights: Locke's social contract theory and constitutional influence
- Montesquieu and Separation of Powers: Montesquieu's theory shaping three branches of government
- External Influences on the U.S. Constitution: UN treaties and international human rights obligations
- Federalism and the Federal–State Debate: Tensions between federal authority and state rights
- The Growth of Presidential Power: Expansion of executive power in the twentieth century
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What makes this paper effective
- It traces a clear line of influence from Enlightenment philosophy to specific constitutional provisions, grounding abstract ideas in concrete legal texts such as Articles I, II, and III.
- It supports claims with direct quotations from primary sources (the Declaration of Independence) and secondary scholarship (Bergman, Kilman & Costello), demonstrating source integration.
- It broadens the argument beyond philosophy to include international treaties and modern presidential power, showing that constitutional interpretation is an ongoing, evolving process.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates source-to-argument mapping: each philosopher's theory is introduced, explained, and then explicitly connected to a specific constitutional clause or legal precedent. This technique ensures that every claim is anchored to evidence, which is a foundational expectation in undergraduate political science and history writing.
Structure breakdown
The essay opens with a brief overview of the Constitution and its pre-1789 philosophical context, then devotes its longest sections to Locke and Montesquieu respectively. It then shifts to external (international) influences, a short discussion of federal–state tensions, and concludes with a section on the modern expansion of presidential power. Each section is largely self-contained while contributing to the cumulative argument that the Constitution reflects multiple, layered influences.
Introduction
The U.S. Constitution is the supreme law guiding the conduct of the government, people, and organizations in the United States. It comprises seven articles that delineate the form of government. However, before the Constitution came into force in 1789, there were significant philosophical ideas that influenced its compilation. This essay discusses the key philosophical influences on the U.S. Constitution.
John Locke and Natural Rights
John Locke was an English philosopher whose thinking had a profound impact on the American Constitution. Locke believed that all people possess inalienable rights and are created equal. As an early proponent of social contract theory, he argued that there were certain natural rights that people should enjoy, and that it was the people who created government — and who could overthrow it if it failed to protect their rights. In his philosophical writings, Locke maintained that all human beings are born equal and possess natural rights to defend their liberties, life, and health. His work contributed to the development of liberalism and laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment.
Locke's philosophical thinking directly influenced the U.S. Declaration of Independence. When the Constitution was being drafted, lawmakers drew upon Locke's social contract framework and integrated it into the document. The U.S. Constitution is, in this sense, a legal framework that offers protection of natural rights, including the right to life and property. Locke's ideas inspired legislators to embed human rights protections within the Constitution. Most notably, John Locke influenced the adoption of the 1776 Declaration of Independence, which states "that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" (History, 2017, p. 1).
One prominent expression of Locke's influence is the Bill of Rights (1791), which defines the fundamental human rights that people must enjoy. Locke further argued that when a government fails to protect the natural rights of its citizens, the people have the right to dissolve that government. This principle is reflected in the U.S. Constitution, where legislative power can be used to remove the President from office through a two-thirds majority vote.
Locke also theorized about the distribution of governmental power, arguing that concentrating all power in a single individual — who would simultaneously make and execute the law — would be far too dangerous. The doctrine of separation of powers is therefore outlined in the U.S. Constitution under Articles I, II, and III, which divide government into three branches of equal power, each with distinct functions that do not conflict with one another.
Montesquieu and Separation of Powers
Montesquieu was a French Enlightenment philosopher who formally postulated the theory of separation of powers. He argued that this doctrine was essential to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful to be controlled. Montesquieu's theory greatly influenced the drafting of the U.S. Constitution, and the United States employed his theoretical framework to entrench the concept of separation of powers in its governing document. Following the Constitution, three branches of government were established: the Legislative, the Executive, and the Judiciary. The functions of each branch are distinct and do not overlap: the legislature makes law, the executive enforces the law, and the judiciary interprets it.
The separation of powers works hand-in-hand with the theory of checks and balances. In the United States, the legislature can remove the President as head of the executive by a two-thirds majority. The judiciary can declare executive actions unconstitutional. The executive can use veto power to block a bill passed by the legislature. And the executive and the Senate share authority over the appointment of judges.
Kilman and Costello (2000) discuss legislative power under the U.S. Constitution, noting that the legislature holds the sole power to make law and cannot delegate that function to other agencies. Executive power is vested in the President, who under Section 2 of the Constitution commands the Army and has the power to make treaties. The Constitution does not, however, permit the President to enforce the law directly; subordinate officers are required to carry out those duties. Congress may also restrain executive power through legislation, and although the President may veto bills passed by the House, such a veto can be overridden by a two-thirds majority. The Constitution further vests the judiciary with authority over judicial decisions and the interpretation of cases and the Constitution itself. While Congress establishes the Supreme Court and lower courts, the President appoints judges based on the advice and consent of the Senate (Kilman & Costello, 2000).
More than a century and a half after Montesquieu formulated his theory, his work continued to guide jurists and politicians in the United States. Analysis of Supreme Court readings reveals that Montesquieu's influence persists in U.S. judicial decisions. For example, the Supreme Court invoked Montesquieu's doctrine in Bowsher v. Synar, "that struck down the Gramm-Rudman deficit reduction bill as an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power, and Buckley v. Valeo, a case upholding the constitutionality of the Federal Election Commission" (Bergman, 1990, p. 2). "The Supreme Court also invoked Montesquieu's authority in I.N.S. v. Chadha, a decision that struck down the legislative veto of administrative decisions" (Bergman, 1990, p. 2). While Montesquieu is particularly remembered for the theory of separation of powers, the Supreme Court has also relied on his authority to make decisions on issues such as treason, perjury, domestic relations, and penal reform.
References
Bergman, M. P. (1990). Montesquieu's theory of government and the framing of the American Constitution. Pepperdine Law Review, 18(1).
Brown, G. (2016). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the 21st century: A living document in a changing world. Open Book Publishers. ISBN 978-1-783-74218-9.
Harwood, W. S. (2002). Gun control: State versus federal regulation of firearms. Maine Policy Review, 11(1).
History. (2017). Declaration of Independence. Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/document/
Kilman, J. H., & Costello, G. (2000). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and interpretation. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Mathews, M. K. (2001). Restoring the imperial presidency: An examination of President Bush's new emergency powers. Hamline Journal of Public Law & Policy, 23(2), 455.
Nurser, J. (2005). For all peoples and all nations: Christian churches and human rights. Geneva: WCC Publications.
Rudalevige, A. (2006). The new imperial presidency: Renewing presidential power after Watergate. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
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