Psychological Effects of Natural Disasters on People

Introduction

The world has never been a benign or sterile environment, but history has shown time and again that humans are resilient creatures capable of enduring a great deal. In some cases, however, the overwhelming nature of an event can be so devastating that people experience a wide range of adverse psychological effects that can have life-threatening implications if left unattended. Although the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, clearly illustrated the enormous impact that man-made disasters can have on people, natural disasters such as tsunamis, hurricanes, and tornadoes can produce these same adverse effects as well. In order to identify what these adverse psychological effects are and what can be done about them, this paper reviews the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature concerning the psychological effects on people in a natural disaster, followed by a summary of the research and important findings in the conclusion.

Defining Disasters and Their Psychological Impact

There is certainly no lack of natural disasters in the world today. According to Richman and Fraser (2001), "Any attention paid to the variety of news media confirms that disasters are common occurrences throughout the world. The stories of the destructive power of natural disasters, such as floods and fire, fascinate us. We want to understand what happened, to learn how victims are responding, and to be assured that something is being done to help" (133). It is difficult to watch news coverage of a natural disaster affect others without experiencing some level of "there but for the grace of God" reaction, and this empathetic response suggests that people not only want reassurance that something is being done to help those affected, but that the resources capable of helping them exist in the first place.

According to Richman and Fraser, it is important to understand why some people react adversely to natural disasters while others come through the experience with little or no adverse outcomes. These authors report that, "Historically, labeling an event as a 'disaster' means that it has several characteristics in addition to the destruction of property, loss of life, and widespread injury. The event also has an identifiable beginning and end; adversely affects a relatively large group of people; is 'public' and shared by members of more than one family; is out of the realm of ordinary experience; and, psychologically, is traumatic enough to induce stress in almost anyone" (Richman and Fraser 134). Beyond these characteristics, the authors suggest three additional defining features of disasters: events that are "(a) relatively sudden, (b) highly disruptive, [and] (c) time-limited (even though the effects may be longer lasting)" (Richman and Fraser 134).

It is also important to take into account the origin of a disaster. Raphael (1986) identified two broad classifications relevant to this study: (a) "natural" disasters (i.e., earthquakes, tornadoes, fires, floods, and hurricanes) and (b) "man-made" disasters (i.e., sniper shootings, terrorist attacks, airplane crashes, and toxic releases). Breton, Valla, and Lambert (1993) emphasize that both natural and man-made disasters can be psychologically or physically detrimental to human lives. As Saleh (1996) reports, "Increasingly, worldwide mental health counselors are being called upon to provide services in the aftermath of disasters and traumatic crises, whether natural or man-made. Naturally occurring disasters include earthquakes, hurricanes, typhoons, floods, fires and tsunamis" (519).

Stout (2002) points out that some studies indicate the long-term psychological morbidity typically associated with man-made disasters appears to be greater than that associated with natural disasters, owing to the intentional nature of human violence compared with the randomness of natural events. However, Stout emphasizes that in some cases, the conditions of people who experienced natural disasters also become chronic and severe. Myers and Wee (2005) reinforce this distinction, noting that in contrast to man-made disasters, "An obvious characteristic of natural disasters is the unambiguous physical impact, resulting in property damage, injury, and death of victims. They often have a clearly identifiable 'low point' at which, from the victim's point-of-view, the 'worst is over' and restoration and recovery can proceed" (8).

Age, Resilience, and Children's Reactions

Beyond the source of a disaster, the age of those who experience it can significantly influence their reaction. Stout advises that "Each year millions of children are exposed to critical events, such as natural disasters, but not all of these children will become traumatized" (49). In fact, some children appear to possess resilient qualities that their adult counterparts may lack. Citing the American Psychiatric Association's definition of trauma, Stout notes that "For adults, an event will be considered traumatic if it 'overwhelms' the individual's 'perceived' ability to cope with it. The two key words here are overwhelm and perceived. A traumatic event is thought to overwhelm an individual's normally effective coping skills. This condition does not always apply to children" (50).

This different reaction among young people compared to adults is based in large part on how children perceive events, using adult reactions as a gauge. Stout notes that "Children, especially young children, interpret events in part by using their caregivers' reactions to such events as a model for determining whether the world is safe or unsafe. If the child's family offers a message of hope and personal action that can be taken by the child or the family, the event is more likely to be managed and the child does not become overwhelmed" (51).

Nevertheless, as Brown (1990) points out, traumatic events may require a significant length of time to be fully processed, and some children who experience natural disasters may manifest psychological problems later in life as a result. According to Brown, "Unresolved grief, various physical assaults, operations and injuries, experiences of war and natural disasters, and so forth can give rise to problems and neuroses in adult life" (25). In their study of children's reactions to natural disasters, Richman and Fraser report that children appear more resilient to psychological problems following a natural disaster to the extent that:

They have family support systems able to respond to their needs; their daily routine is quickly restored (including a return to school); and they are given the opportunity to discuss and work through their fears and disaster experiences in a structured environment (Richman and Fraser 142).

While Richman and Fraser emphasize the need for additional research in this area, other authorities similarly stress the need for further study concerning how natural disasters affect people physically in ways that contribute to psychological problems. There is growing evidence that adverse reactions to natural disasters can have profound effects on the immune system throughout the life course, contributing to physical maladies that then feed higher levels of stress in a vicious cycle of escalation (Baum, Revenson, and Singer 2001). According to Baum and colleagues, "There is now substantial evidence for the role of psychological stress in susceptibility to upper respiratory infectious disease. [However], it remains unclear whether associations between psychological factors and infectious disease are attributable to stress-induced changes in immunity" (691).

Studies of individual and community responses to natural disasters also indicate that a prior history of traumatic life events — including physical or sexual assault, exposure to homicide, witnessing a death, injury, threat to life, or destruction of home or community — is associated with higher incidences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as well as other anxiety-related disorders (Saleh 520). As Saleh points out, "PTSD can exist without previous events, but it does appear one can be predisposed to the disorder. It is also possible that an entire community can experience PTSD after disaster or crisis" (520). It is therefore important to recognize that a natural disaster can produce adverse psychological effects not only on direct victims but also on other affected individuals in the community and on relief workers themselves. Saleh emphasizes that "The counseling response to disasters needs to be inclusive of crisis intervention and mid- and long-term effects. Mental health services need to be rendered to victims, those closest to the victims, those involved in rescue and relief efforts, and members of the community who may suffer post-traumatic stress as results of the disasters or crises" (519).

Conclusion

The research showed that disasters can be enormously traumatic events for humans, but the source of these events can be an important predictor of how people will react. Man-made disasters were shown to be of a qualitatively different nature than their natural counterparts, with most people reacting to natural disasters in fundamentally different ways over time than they react to man-made disasters. Nevertheless, reactions to disasters in general were shown to be severe — and in some cases life-threatening — with some survivors continuing to suffer from effects long after the event has passed. The research also showed that although psychological reactions differ among natural disaster survivors, there are common reactions that can be expected, including fear, anxiety, stress, and depression. In some cases, these symptoms merge into post-traumatic stress disorder or other severe chronic conditions that can have a significant adverse impact on an individual's life.

Other findings that emerged from the research included the manner in which children tend to look to their adult caregivers to determine how they should react to disasters; adults who exhibit resilience in the face of adversity therefore serve as an inspirational and motivational factor for young people. Likewise, people who already suffer from a preexisting mental disorder may experience exacerbation of those conditions following a natural disaster, in addition to developing other symptoms typically associated with such experiences. Finally, the research was consistent in emphasizing the need for further studies concerning how people react to natural disasters. Given recent trends in the increasing severity and frequency of natural disasters such as hurricanes and tsunamis — attributed by some scientists to global warming — this need for further research grows every day. In the final analysis, natural disasters are profoundly frightening events. Some people manage to live through them without a trace of lasting psychological effect, but the vast majority do experience some level of psychological distress, and some develop severe and chronic conditions as a result.