Psychological Models for Understanding Personality

Introduction

Understanding the development of human personality can best be approached by examining the various psychological models that serve as frameworks for thinking about it. This paper selects one concept from each of four major psychological models—psychodynamic, neurobiological, trait, and cognitive—defines each concept, identifies the theorist associated with it, and explains why it is the most applicable concept from that model.

Psychodynamic Model: Erikson's Epigenetic Principle

Erikson's concept of psychosocial development—the epigenetic principle—is essentially the notion that nature and nurture work together to develop the human personality (Lecci, 2015). This principle was further validated in research by Weaver et al. (2004) and Hurley (2013). The example Weaver et al. (2004) give of how nature and nurture work together involves rat mothers who lick their pups; the DNA of those pups is read differently by the body during development because the licking triggers a physiological response. Those pups go on to lick their own pups in turn. Hurley (2013) builds on this by observing that rats born to attentive mothers have low levels of glucocorticoid receptors in their hippocampus, while rats born to inattentive mothers have high levels.

Erikson's stages of development argue an analogous concept: at each stage, the individual faces some internal conflict—such as identity vs. role confusion—and that conflict is shaped by the external environment and the degree to which the individual is appropriately nurtured along the way. The nurturing a mother provides to a child at the very first stage of development shapes the baby's brain and personality in a specific way, much as a rat mother's affections trigger developmental responses in her pups. Without that nurturing act, the behavioral characteristic is not activated; the nurturing must occur in order for the relevant DNA feature to be expressed.

Psychosocial development is the most applicable concept from this model, even though other concepts are valuable—from Freud to Jung to Adler and beyond. Freud introduced the notion of the unconscious mind; Jung introduced the concept of the shadow self; Adler introduced humanism to psychology. Erikson, however, provides a fuller picture of the nature-versus-nurture debate by explaining that the two go together like hand and glove. Nature alone is insufficient for proper development. Nurturing is necessary—but it must be balanced, neither too much nor too little—so that the individual develops sufficient autonomy and self-esteem, the ability to be independent without developing an attachment disorder.

Neurobiological Model: Eysenck's Inherited Nervous System

Within the neurobiological model, Hans Eysenck advanced the concept that individuals inherit a nervous system from their parents that affects their ability to learn and adapt to the environment. The concept had three dimensions: introversion vs. extroversion, neuroticism vs. stability, and psychoticism vs. socialization. The outcome of each dimension for the individual personality was based on the type of nervous system inherited, as it affected the way the brain processed inputs (Lecci, 2015).

Eysenck's concept of brain function was rooted in his belief that "the ascending reticular activating system was the brain structure responsible for the manifestation of extraverted or introverted behavior" (Lecci, 2015, p. 8). Brain structure and neurochemical makeup can therefore affect whether one is introverted or extroverted, neurotic or stable, psychotic or socialized. Although this concept may not be entirely satisfactory as a complete explanation of personality development, it stands as the most applicable concept from the neurobiological model because biological predispositions to certain behaviors—such as violence and aggression—can potentially be passed down from one's ancestors. Research has confirmed that "significant advances in this perspective have been achieved with the advent of high-resolution imaging techniques" (Lecci, 2015, p. 8). Depue and Collins (1999) conducted a study of the neurobiology of personality structure, examining how dopamine, the facilitation of incentive motivation, and extroversion are related in the neurobiological structures of the body. The concept is useful for explaining the nature component of personality development. Information is passed from one generation to the next through the human body, and neurobiological features demonstrate as much. This does not mean nurture plays no part, but it does indicate that nature should not be excluded from the discussion.

Conclusion

The psychological models of personality provide concepts that act as frameworks for understanding the development of human personality. From the epigenetic principle to neurobiological inheritance to systematic eclecticism to social-cognitive influences on development, each model offers a distinct lens through which to examine how personality forms. Taken together, these concepts reveal a multifaceted picture in which biology, environment, social interaction, and individual perception all play meaningful roles in shaping who we are.

References

Depue, R. A., & Collins, P. F. (1999). Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(3), 491–517.

Decarvalho, R. J. (1990). Contributions to the history of psychology: LXIX. Gordon Allport on the problem of method in psychology. Psychological Reports, 67(1), 267–275.

Hurley, D. (2013). Trait vs. fate. Discover, 34(4), 48–55. Retrieved from http://discovermagazine.com

Lecci, L. B. (2015). Personality. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu

Weaver, I. C. G., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., … Meaney, M. J. (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 7(8), 847–854. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn1276