Reading Disabilities in Arab Students at Non-Arabic Schools

Introduction

Reading disabilities pose one of the greatest threats to a child's learning, since all other subjects become reliant on comprehension as education progresses. English as a second language (ESL) students have additional needs, since their knowledge of language has been shaped differently than that of children who speak English as their native language. Arabic children in particular may struggle in the English-speaking classroom because of the drastically different systems of speech, reading, and learning in English and Arabic. Further, some evidence suggests that Arabic children suffer from reading disabilities more often than other children due to consanguineous marriages. Due to these possible genetic factors, cultural and language differences, and the challenges inherent to all ESL students, Arabic children attending non-Arabic schools may be more likely to struggle with reading disabilities than other children. This paper investigates these factors and how they might contribute to learning disabilities in Arab students attending non-Arabic schools.

To address this topic, the paper first provides necessary background information on reading disabilities to establish a base of knowledge and consider how these fit into the individual focus of the discussion. The challenges posed by teaching ESL students — whether Arabic-speaking or otherwise — are then examined. Finally, research specific to Arabic-speaking children in non-Arabic schools is evaluated. Note that ESL (English as a Second Language) is used synonymously with English Language Learner (ELL) and other terms frequently used to describe children whose native language is any language other than English.

Background: What We Know About Reading Disabilities

A number of learning disabilities exist that can affect a child's ability to read. For the purposes of this paper, a reading disability is treated as a general term for developmental dyslexia. A common misconception is that individuals with dyslexia see words reversed or mixed up on the page (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). This is untrue. Developmental dyslexia is a neurobiological problem that causes individuals to have poor word decoding skills and inaccurate word recognition. As a result, reading and spelling are heavily affected. While developmental dyslexia is not caused by poverty, learning English as a second language, or speech and hearing impairment, those issues can exacerbate the problem. What is known about the causes of dyslexia is that there is a positive genetic link, meaning it can run in families (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007; Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007; Abu-Rabia & Maroun, 2005). Additionally, because it is a physical problem located in the brain, it is not curable and children do not simply "grow out of it." It is estimated that 2.8 million school-aged children in the United States suffer from developmental dyslexia (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

Developmental dyslexia is one of the most common reasons for a child to be diagnosed with a learning disability. It affects 80% of those considered learning disabled (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). While teachers are increasingly trained to handle some of the issues inherent in teaching students with learning disabilities, reading difficulty caused by developmental dyslexia can be frustrating for both teachers and students (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005). This is due in part to the intensive reliance that all other classroom subjects have on reading as children progress to upper grade levels. This fact makes it crucially important that children with developmental dyslexia be diagnosed as early as possible (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007; Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

Diagnosing children early is key to ensuring their academic success. Studies attempting to establish brain imaging as a means of positively identifying developmentally disabled individuals have yielded mixed results; too many false negatives or false positives were indicated across a number of studies (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). Even if methods were perfected, the MRI technology necessary would be costly and trained staff would be needed to interpret results. Despite these frustrations, a number of brain imaging studies have made it possible to examine some of the differences between the brains of average learners and those of individuals with developmental dyslexia (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

In the absence of a medical test, teachers and researchers look for other signs that students may have developmental dyslexia (Abu-Rabia & Maroun, 2005). Children with reading disabilities often exhibit two key difficulties. First, they cannot read or recognize as many words as are expected for their age level. Second, they have difficulty decoding words and often experience a number of decoding errors during reading (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). Due to these decoding errors, reading becomes painfully slow and laborious. Children are often unable to gather contextual information or answer content questions, even from short, age-appropriate passages, because so much time is spent decoding individual words that meaning is lost (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007; Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

The impact that a reading disability has on students and teachers is significant (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007). Without identification, students who are unable to progress often act out or fall behind their peers. Even when children are identified as having a reading disability, resources may not be available to give them the attention they need to manage their disability effectively. This is especially true in crowded classrooms or classrooms with multiple learning disabled or ESL children. Additionally, children with a reading disability may suffer from co-occurring disorders, including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, which can make identification more difficult (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007; Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

Once identified, children with developmental dyslexia need "explicit, intense, systematic instruction in the sound structure of language (phonemic awareness)" including phonics (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007, p. 512). Motivation and encouragement are also important, as children with reading disabilities must work very hard to reach normal levels of reading. Teachers working with reading disabled children are encouraged to assess individual language processing in order to identify weaknesses and apply appropriate instruction. Keeping students engaged in classroom activities is additionally important to foster participation rather than loss of attention, apathy, and failure due to disengagement (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

Reading Disabilities and the ESL Learner

ESL learners, unlike children with reading disabilities, struggle because they are adapting to the use of a new language. Unless they also have a learning disability, ESL students do not have a physical problem preventing them from achieving in the classroom. That said, ESL students require specific tools in order to transition from their native language into becoming fluent readers and speakers of English (Drucker, 2003). Drucker (2003) suggests the incorporation of tools geared toward ESL students that also provide substantial learning opportunities for native English speakers.

ESL learners come to the English classroom with a wide range of ability and English experience. Some students speak no English at all, while others manage orally but struggle with reading and writing in English. Wide debate exists as to what approaches should be used to address the needs of these students (Drucker, 2003). The bulk of available research in the United States focuses on Spanish-speaking children, due to the high number entering schools across the country. The issue of ESL learners is, however, much larger than Spanish speakers alone; in urban areas, teachers increasingly report classrooms with four or five different native languages spoken. This poses challenges not only in terms of attention to ESL needs but also in developing curricula that can bridge multiple cultural barriers (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005; Drucker, 2003).

Children with limited English language skills often experience confusion and frustration in the English-speaking classroom. In classrooms with a small number of ESL students, children may be keenly aware of their minority status and reluctant to participate or ask for help. They may be shy or self-conscious, causing them to make anxiety-related mistakes. Obvious difficulties also arise when children simply do not understand instructions given in English (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005; Drucker, 2003). Conversely, in classrooms heavily populated with ESL students, children may feel no pressure to develop English language skills, since others who share their native language surround them.

Vocabulary is one of the largest challenges for ESL students (Drucker, 2003). Students who begin school with almost no exposure to English are likely to perform poorly on working vocabulary, syntactic, and verbal memory assessments (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005). Most ESL students have limited English vocabularies, though their native language vocabulary may be strong. Others do not have a strong vocabulary even in their native language, posing additional challenges because teachers have difficulty explaining relationships using that language. In order to build an age-appropriate vocabulary in English, ESL students must learn words at a faster rate than their peers (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005; Drucker, 2003). This results in a widening gap between the reading and comprehension levels of ESL and non-ESL students when ESL needs are not adequately addressed (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005).

Some ESL students come from native languages that pose greater difficulties than others. For example, Russian and Arabic have alphabets that look very different from the English alphabet, requiring children to learn an entirely new coding system (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005). Even when the alphabet is similar, the English language is difficult to learn due to the many inconsistencies in tense and individual word use. Because ESL students may not be conversationally fluent, the subtleties of English may take considerable time to master (Palmer, El-Ashry, Leclere, & Chang, 2007). Drucker (2003) notes that students typically achieve "peer-appropriate conversation skills" about two years after immersion into English, while academic proficiency takes even longer (p. 23).

Cultural understanding presents another challenge for ESL students. Barriers rooted in culture can negatively impact reading comprehension (Drucker, 2003). Reading passages may be culturally appropriate for American students, but some subject matter does not bridge the cultural gap. In such instances, children can often answer questions whose answers appear directly in the text, but struggle with inferential questions — such as why something occurred or what is likely to happen next. The clues embedded in the text are culturally charged and are recognized intuitively only by children with shared cultural experiences (Drucker, 2003).

A language barrier may additionally mask learning disabilities that do exist in ESL students. Teachers may attribute a struggling ESL reader's difficulties entirely to the language barrier when the student in fact has developmental dyslexia. Parents may similarly overlook signs of a learning disability, attributing their child's struggles to normal language learning challenges. These issues may go unaddressed when there is an additional communication barrier between parents and teachers (Drucker, 2003). One useful indicator when considering whether an ESL student has a reading disability is whether the child excels in his or her native language. If a child is struggling to learn to read in both English and the native language despite effort and interest, a disability may be present. However, if the child comes from a home with limited reading culture and has not had significant exposure to literacy in the native language, the struggles may reflect normal learning challenges. Conversely, if a child reads well in the native language but struggles with English, a reading disability is unlikely, since the child clearly possesses the decoding skills necessary to read (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005).

A number of strategies exist for teaching ESL students in the classroom, and these same strategies appear to benefit ESL students who also have a reading disability, though additional time is typically needed. Research indicates that phonological processing is the most significant cognitive process required for acquiring English reading skills (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005). A strong phonics curriculum is essential for both ESL and non-ESL readers; however, ESL readers will likely need more time to transition depending on their native language (Drucker, 2003). Reading aloud to the class, pairing children in reading groups, and having children listen to audiobooks while following along in the text are all methods used to develop phonics and reading comprehension skills. Teachers may also benefit from asking questions before children read sample passages so that children know what to look for as they read (Drucker, 2003).

Reading passages should be chosen carefully in the ESL classroom (Drucker, 2003). Some teachers incorporate narrow reading — the use of many different texts on the same subject — which allows children to build vocabulary and comprehension even when the context of an individual passage is difficult to grasp. Teachers should select texts with cultural considerations in mind; students learning the language will relate to familiar topics, while native English speakers can benefit from exposure to cultural differences. Teachers should also ensure that texts depicting other cultures are not stereotypical, as such portrayals may make students uncomfortable or subject to ridicule (Drucker, 2003).

To succeed as English readers, ESL students must also spend time developing reading proficiency in their native language (Drucker, 2003). Children who are accomplished readers in their own language can often apply many of the same tools to the new language. Children who receive even a few hours of native-language instruction per week are frequently able to transfer that proficiency to English. Since public school tutoring is not always available or sufficient, parents should be encouraged to read to children and support reading development in the native language. Parents often neglect to do this under the mistaken assumption that it will hinder English language learning (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005).

Conclusion and Recommendations

Research shows a clear relationship between the struggles of ESL students and the struggles of students who have reading disabilities. Since children of Arab descent may have a higher probability of genetically caused developmental dyslexia, those children face compounding risks in the English classroom. Struggling with both a language barrier and a learning disability, they require teachers, administrators, and parents who are aware of and responsive to the issues involved. Awareness of the linguistic differences between Arabic and English, sensitivity to cultural gaps, and early identification of possible learning disabilities are all essential components of effective support. With appropriate attention and resources, Arab children with reading disabilities can succeed in the ESL classroom — but reaching that outcome requires informed, proactive collaboration among all stakeholders in a child's education.

References

Abu-Rabia, S., and Maroun, L. (2005). The effect of consanguineous marriage on reading disability in the Arab community. Dyslexia, 11, 1–21.

Davis, G. N., Lindo, E. J., and Compton, D. L. (2007). Children at risk for reading failure: Constructing an early screening measure. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(5), 32–37.

Drucker, M. J. (2003). What reading teachers should know about ESL learners. The Reading Teacher, 57, 22–29.

Hudson, R. F., High, L., and Al Otaiba, S. (2007). Dyslexia and the brain: What does current research tell us? The Reading Teacher, 60, 506–515.

Lipka, O., Siegel, L. S., and Vukovic, R. (2005). The literacy skills of English language learners in Canada. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(1), 39–49.

Palmer, B. C., El-Ashry, F., Leclere, J. T., and Chang, S. (2007). Learning from Abdallah: A case study of an Arabic-speaking child in a U.S. school. The Reading Teacher, 61, 8–17.