Reading Disabilities in Arab Students at Non-Arabic Schools

Introduction

Reading disabilities pose one of the greatest threats to a child's learning, since all other subjects become reliant on comprehension as education progresses. English as a second language (ESL) students have additional needs, since their knowledge of language has been shaped differently than that of children who speak English as their native language. Arabic children in particular may struggle in the English-speaking classroom because of the drastically different systems of speech, reading, and learning in English and Arabic. Further, some evidence suggests that Arabic children suffer from reading disabilities more often than other children due to consanguineous marriages. Due to these possible genetic factors, cultural and language differences, and the challenges inherent to all ESL students, Arabic children attending non-Arabic schools may be more likely to struggle with reading disabilities than other children. This paper investigates these factors and how they might contribute to learning disabilities in Arab students attending non-Arabic schools.

To address this topic, the paper first provides necessary background information on reading disabilities to establish a base of knowledge and consider how these fit into the individual focus of the discussion. The challenges posed by teaching ESL students — whether Arabic-speaking or otherwise — are then examined. Finally, research specific to Arabic-speaking children in non-Arabic schools is evaluated. Note that ESL (English as a Second Language) is used synonymously with English Language Learner (ELL) and other terms frequently used to describe children whose native language is any language other than English.

Background: What We Know About Reading Disabilities

A number of learning disabilities exist that can affect a child's ability to read. For the purposes of this paper, a reading disability is treated as a general term for developmental dyslexia. A common misconception is that individuals with dyslexia see words reversed or mixed up on the page (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). This is untrue. Developmental dyslexia is a neurobiological problem that causes individuals to have poor word decoding skills and inaccurate word recognition. As a result, reading and spelling are heavily affected. While developmental dyslexia is not caused by poverty, learning English as a second language, or speech and hearing impairment, those issues can exacerbate the problem. What is known about the causes of dyslexia is that there is a positive genetic link, meaning it can run in families (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007; Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007; Abu-Rabia & Maroun, 2005). Additionally, because it is a physical problem located in the brain, it is not curable and children do not simply "grow out of it." It is estimated that 2.8 million school-aged children in the United States suffer from developmental dyslexia (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

Developmental dyslexia is one of the most common reasons for a child to be diagnosed with a learning disability. It affects 80% of those considered learning disabled (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). While teachers are increasingly trained to handle some of the issues inherent in teaching students with learning disabilities, reading difficulty caused by developmental dyslexia can be frustrating for both teachers and students (Lipka, Siegel, & Vukovic, 2005). This is due in part to the intensive reliance that all other classroom subjects have on reading as children progress to upper grade levels. This fact makes it crucially important that children with developmental dyslexia be diagnosed as early as possible (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007; Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

Diagnosing children early is key to ensuring their academic success. Studies attempting to establish brain imaging as a means of positively identifying developmentally disabled individuals have yielded mixed results; too many false negatives or false positives were indicated across a number of studies (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). Even if methods were perfected, the MRI technology necessary would be costly and trained staff would be needed to interpret results. Despite these frustrations, a number of brain imaging studies have made it possible to examine some of the differences between the brains of average learners and those of individuals with developmental dyslexia (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

In the absence of a medical test, teachers and researchers look for other signs that students may have developmental dyslexia (Abu-Rabia & Maroun, 2005). Children with reading disabilities often exhibit two key difficulties. First, they cannot read or recognize as many words as are expected for their age level. Second, they have difficulty decoding words and often experience a number of decoding errors during reading (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007). Due to these decoding errors, reading becomes painfully slow and laborious. Children are often unable to gather contextual information or answer content questions, even from short, age-appropriate passages, because so much time is spent decoding individual words that meaning is lost (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007; Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

The impact that a reading disability has on students and teachers is significant (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007). Without identification, students who are unable to progress often act out or fall behind their peers. Even when children are identified as having a reading disability, resources may not be available to give them the attention they need to manage their disability effectively. This is especially true in crowded classrooms or classrooms with multiple learning disabled or ESL children. Additionally, children with a reading disability may suffer from co-occurring disorders, including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, which can make identification more difficult (Davis, Lindo, & Compton, 2007; Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

Once identified, children with developmental dyslexia need "explicit, intense, systematic instruction in the sound structure of language (phonemic awareness)" including phonics (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007, p. 512). Motivation and encouragement are also important, as children with reading disabilities must work very hard to reach normal levels of reading. Teachers working with reading disabled children are encouraged to assess individual language processing in order to identify weaknesses and apply appropriate instruction. Keeping students engaged in classroom activities is additionally important to foster participation rather than loss of attention, apathy, and failure due to disengagement (Hudson, High, & Al Otaiba, 2007).

References

Abu-Rabia, S., and Maroun, L. (2005). The effect of consanguineous marriage on reading disability in the Arab community. Dyslexia, 11, 1–21.

Davis, G. N., Lindo, E. J., and Compton, D. L. (2007). Children at risk for reading failure: Constructing an early screening measure. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(5), 32–37.

Drucker, M. J. (2003). What reading teachers should know about ESL learners. The Reading Teacher, 57, 22–29.

Hudson, R. F., High, L., and Al Otaiba, S. (2007). Dyslexia and the brain: What does current research tell us? The Reading Teacher, 60, 506–515.

Lipka, O., Siegel, L. S., and Vukovic, R. (2005). The literacy skills of English language learners in Canada. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(1), 39–49.

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