Reading Disabilities in High School Students: Causes and Impact

Introduction to Learning and Reading Disabilities

Learning disabilities (LD) are a group of varying disorders that negatively impact learning. They may affect one's ability to speak, listen, think, read, write, spell, or compute. The most prevalent LD is in the area of reading: close to half of secondary students with LD perform more than three grade levels below their enrolled grade in essential academic skills (45% in reading, 44% in math) (NCLD, 2009). Currently, 2.4 million students are diagnosed with LD and receive special education services in schools, representing 41% of all students receiving special education. Reading disabilities are lifelong; however, their effects may be mitigated to support learning, living, and earning, particularly when identified early and addressed effectively (NCLD, 2009).

Adolescent Developmental Stages and Reading

Adolescent years are fraught with hormonal changes that affect behaviors, attitudes, and academics. As outlined in the developmental exhibit below, high school students progress through three primary developmental stages between the ages of 12 and 19. These dynamic variables present even greater challenges when the adolescent has a learning disability in reading. Reading literacy is derived from successful language acquisition that occurs from birth, and this language acquisition process sets the stage for reading success. When a child's environment — whether internal or external — is not conducive to that process, a learning disability may result.

How Reading Disabilities Develop: Language Acquisition and Phonemic Awareness

Children must learn basic phonemes, graphemes, and morphemes as a foundation for reading. Phonemes are sounds; graphemes are symbols; and morphemes are meaningful word units. The term graphophonic (or phonographic) refers to the sound-symbol system of the English language. In spoken language, sounds blend together in what the ancient Greeks called a "river of sound" (Savage, 2007). This river of sound flourishes during the language acquisition process, embedding contextual clues that support reading comprehension.

Savage (2007) posits, "A child's level of phonemic awareness on entering school is widely held to be the strongest single determinant of the success that she or he will experience in learning to read — or conversely, the likelihood that she or he will fail." Research therefore demonstrates that language acquisition with phonemic awareness is highly related to learning to read and serves as an accurate predictor of reading success.

If children do not learn to understand and use language — to read and write, calculate, reason, solve problems, and communicate their ideas — their opportunities for a fulfilling life are seriously compromised. Learning to read is a relatively lengthy process that begins before children enter formal schooling. Children who receive stimulating oral language and literacy experiences from birth onward appear to have an advantage in vocabulary development, general awareness of print, and understanding the goals of reading. When young children are read to, they are exposed in interesting and entertaining ways to the sounds of language. Oral language and literacy interactions open the doors to concepts of rhyming and alliteration and to word play that builds the foundation for phonemic awareness — the critical understanding that spoken syllables and words are made up of small segments of sound (phonemes). Vocabulary and oral comprehension abilities are substantially facilitated by rich oral language interactions with adults, whether in spontaneous conversation or shared picture-book reading (Hock, 2003).

In essence, children likely to have difficulties learning to read can often be identified in the initial stages of their literacy development. The average middle-class child is exposed to approximately 500,000 words by kindergarten; an economically disadvantaged child is exposed to half as many, at best (Horowitz, 2006). Students with reading disabilities approach the reading of words and text in a laborious manner, demonstrating difficulties linking sounds (phonemes) to letters and letter patterns. Their reading is hesitant and characterized by frequent starts, stops, and mispronunciations. Comprehension of material being read is usually extremely poor.

This poor comprehension, however, is often not the result of insufficient intelligence. In fact, many children who have difficulty learning to read are bright and motivated, at least initially. Their comprehension difficulties occur because it takes far too long to read words, leaving little mental energy for remembering and understanding what was read (Hock, 2003). The slow and inaccurate reading of words cannot be meaningfully improved by using context clues to guess at pronunciation. Consequently, while the fundamental purpose of reading is to derive meaning from print, the key to comprehension starts with the rapid and accurate reading of words. Difficulties in decoding unfamiliar words and learning to recognize words rapidly lie at the core of most reading difficulties. These difficulties can be systematically traced to early problems understanding that spoken language is composed of smaller segments of sound — i.e., phonemic awareness (Savage, 2007). Many of these early difficulties in developing phonemic awareness stem from a lack of literacy and oral language interactions with adults during infancy and early childhood, interactions often limited by poverty in a self-perpetuating cycle.

Conclusion

Reading disabilities are lifelong; however, their effects may be mitigated to support learning, living, and earning, particularly when identified early and addressed effectively. Language acquisition with phonemic awareness is closely correlated with learning to read and serves as an accurate predictor of reading success. It is therefore critical to identify reading disabilities early so that effective intervention strategies can be employed. High school students are in a transitional phase, and without the necessary scaffolding, support, and tools to enhance self-efficacy, young adults will face significant challenges in becoming self-sustaining. Their success depends on the fundamental skill of reading, which in turn affects writing abilities. Developing literacy skills is an achievement that, once accomplished, benefits a person throughout his or her lifetime (Bowman & Treiman, 2004).

Adolescent Development: Exhibit A

(American School Counselor Association, 2012)

A teenager's development can be divided into three stages: early, middle, and late adolescence. The normal feelings and behaviors of adolescents at each stage are described below.

Early Adolescence (Ages 12–14)

Movement Toward Independence: Struggle with sense of identity; moodiness; improved ability to use speech to express oneself; more likely to express feelings through action than words; close friendships gain importance; less attention shown to parents, with occasional rudeness; realization that parents are not perfect; search for new people to love in addition to parents; tendency to return to childish behavior; peer group influences interests and clothing styles; increasing career interests; mostly interested in the present and near future; greater ability to work.

Sexuality: Girls ahead of boys; shyness, blushing, and modesty; more showing off; greater interest in privacy; worries about being normal.

Ethics and Self-Direction: Rule and limit testing; occasional experimentation with cigarettes, marijuana, and alcohol; capacity for abstract thought.

Middle Adolescence (Ages 15–16)

Movement Toward Independence: Self-involvement, alternating between unrealistically high expectations and poor self-concept; complaints that parents interfere with independence; extreme concern with appearance and one's own body; feelings of strangeness about oneself and one's body; lowered opinion of parents and withdrawal from them; effort to make new friends; strong emphasis on the peer group; periods of sadness as the psychological separation from parents takes place; examination of inner experiences, which may include writing a diary.

Career Interests: Intellectual interests gain importance; some sexual and aggressive energies directed into creative and career interests.

Sexuality: Concerns about sexual attractiveness; frequently changing relationships; tenderness and fears shown toward the opposite sex; feelings of love and passion.

Ethics and Self-Direction: Development of ideals and selection of role models; more consistent evidence of conscience; greater capacity for setting goals; interest in moral reasoning.

Late Adolescence (Ages 17–19)

Movement Toward Independence: Firmer identity; ability to delay gratification; ability to think ideas through; ability to express ideas in words; more developed sense of humor; stable interests; greater emotional stability; ability to make independent decisions; ability to compromise; pride in one's work; self-reliance; greater concern for others.

Career Interests: More defined work habits; higher level of concern for the future; thoughts about one's role in life.

Sexuality: Concerned with serious relationships; clear sexual identity; capacity for love.

Ethics and Self-Direction: Capable of useful insight; stress on personal dignity and self-esteem; ability to set goals and follow through; acceptance of social institutions and cultural traditions; self-regulation of self-esteem.

References

American School Counselor Association. (2012). Adolescent development. Retrieved from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/growth-and-development/child-development/2874.html?detoured=1

Bowman, M., & Treiman, R. (2004). Stepping stones to reading. Theory Into Practice, 43(4), 295–303.

Catone, W. V., & Brady, S. A. (2005). The inadequacy of individual educational program (IEP) goals for high school students with word-level reading difficulties. Annals of Dyslexia, 55(1), 53–78.

Hock, M. D. (2003). "No Child" leaves behind teen reading proficiency. Education Digest, 69(4), 27.

Horowitz, S. H. (2006). You want me to what? Read? Children's Voice, 15(6), 17.

National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). (2009, March 9). Learning disability fast facts. Retrieved from

Savage, J. F. (2007). Sound it out: Phonics in a comprehensive reading program (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.