Schools as a Social Institution: History, Comparisons & Reform

American Education Since World War II

In the aftermath of the Second World War, America's population grew significantly — a phenomenon popularly known as the "baby boom." A similar boom was witnessed in higher education with the passing of the 1944 GI Bill, which provided war veterans with subsidies for attending colleges and universities. More than ten million war veterans made use of this facility, leading to a considerable rise in the number of college-completing individuals. With growth in the proportion of school-goers, there was increased demand for teachers and educational facilities. This heightened demand led to a lowering of teacher certification requirements; in some instances, the standards were nearly eliminated — that is, minimal-to-no professional education was required for teaching school children (AMERICAN EDUCATION, n.d.). This trend, however, subsequently reversed itself. Where there had earlier been a shortage of educators, there was now, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a surplus, prompting a renewed rise in teacher certification standards.

There was a call for the establishment of more schools in order to accommodate the progressively growing number of school-age children. Smaller school districts combined to form larger ones, better equipped to bear increased costs of capital and administration. America witnessed a near-disappearance of its rural single-room schoolhouses, in which a single teacher taught students of all grades (normally first through eighth grade). Building larger schools and transporting students by bus to central locations proved more economical.

The political focus during the 1960s underwent a shift from external affairs — such as the Cold War — to internal concerns, including President Johnson's "War on Poverty" campaign and the civil rights movement. President Kennedy, during his 1961 inaugural address, urged Americans to think not of what the nation could do for them, but what they could do for the nation, heralding a new era of consciousness regarding poverty alleviation and equal opportunity (AMERICAN EDUCATION, n.d.). Both Johnson and Kennedy allocated large amounts of funds to various fields, including education, for the purpose of breaking the cycle of poverty. Initiatives such as Head Start, Title One, Job Corps, and subsidized school lunches were launched. A novel curriculum emphasis characterized educational reform. Teachers were urged to be creative and innovative, making education more engaging and ensuring greater student involvement in the learning process. Instead of rote textbook-learning — the dominant trend of 1950s classrooms — children could choose among options, and were given personalized instruction, non-graded placement, and flexible scheduling opportunities.

The 1960s curriculum reform program, however, failed to improve educational outcomes as desired. Instead, it brought about a drop in test scores and school enrollments, resulting in a loss of public confidence in educators. A powerful back-to-basics movement ensued, placing emphasis on arithmetic computation, reading, and writing, along with teacher accountability (AMERICAN EDUCATION, n.d.). The following decade was marked by economic concerns — the OPEC oil crisis of 1973, high unemployment, double-digit inflation, and high interest rates — all of which affected schools as public education funding was reduced. In the 1980s, criticism directed at teachers and public education intensified. The 1983 national report A Nation at Risk documented the widespread failure of American public school structures. A consequence of that report was an increase in rapid school reform campaigns, with many states passing laws mandating improved standards and expecting more from students.

The fundamental focus of 1990s education was school reform. The Congressional initiative Goals 2000 was intended to establish educational standards at the national level. Most educators concentrated on reorganizing schools to meet the demands of a diverse population and increased global competition driven by rapid technological change. Teachers, on the whole, responded to the challenge by assuming leadership roles and guiding the educational sector into the twenty-first century (AMERICAN EDUCATION, n.d.).

Comparing American Schools with Japan and Germany

Japanese and American school systems differ in several ways, including the number of days in an academic year, the types of schools available, and the pressure placed on students to achieve high grades. School children in Japan are required to attend school for 240 days per academic year — more than 720 additional days over a 12-year schooling period compared to their American peers. Spring holidays, taken when switching grade levels, constitute the only substantial break Japanese students enjoy (Difference Between American and Japanese Schools, n.d.). While Japanese students do receive a summer break, it is filled with assignments to be completed and submitted when school resumes. Japanese teachers also face demanding schedules, receiving only two weeks of holiday per year. All schools in Japan follow an identical syllabus and curriculum, and children are under considerable pressure to work hard and achieve good results. Though this pressure enables Japanese children to excel in international examinations, it has also led to some less desirable outcomes, including elevated rates of student suicide.

Despite this intense pressure, Japanese high-school graduates appear to have less practical knowledge than their American counterparts in some respects. Students in Japan undergo standardized testing to determine whether they qualify for high school or college education; those who fail must enroll in vocationally oriented institutes. Although American schools can sometimes be affected by violence or crime in certain areas, the United States also has many excellent schools. Likewise, Japan has both strong and weak institutions. American schools are characterized by significant cultural diversity among students and staff, while Japanese schools reflect a more homogenous culture — a factor that tends to make the environment comparatively calm and orderly. Japanese children learn from a very early age to show respect for elders and peers alike, with parents placing greater emphasis on children's responsibilities than on their rights. The academic and societal pressures described above are largely absent from the American schooling experience, and American students also enjoy more holidays and fewer school days. One notable advantage of U.S. schools is access to advanced technology; Japanese schools employ technology on a comparatively smaller scale (Difference Between American and Japanese Schools, n.d.).

The three-tiered educational structure of German schools begins after four years of primary schooling. According to a June 2011 Wall Street Journal article, top performers seeking university admission attend Gymnasien; average performers destined for white-collar occupations attend Realschulen; and the lowest scorers attend Hauptschulen, where they receive vocational training. In contrast, students in the United States do not face formal career-track placement until high school. Reform efforts aimed at Germany's school system have faced significant resistance, with critics arguing that the tracking system favors higher social classes (Heibutzki, n.d.).

Similar to the United States, education policy in Germany is set primarily by local authorities. Germany's sixteen states govern all aspects of the educational system, including laws mandating school attendance for children aged 6 to 15. However, the homeschooling option available to American families is not permitted in Germany. Private and parochial schools are also relatively rare — there are only approximately 2,500 such schools in a country of eighty million people. German schools are more academically oriented than their American counterparts; only 10–15% of German school children participate in local extracurricular clubs for drama, sports, or other activities (Heibutzki, n.d.). The teacher-student relationship in Germany is also relatively formal, with minimal communication outside of class. Germany's annual school calendar comprises 220 days — 40 more than in the United States — yet students enjoy more frequent holidays distributed throughout the academic year.