Second Language Socialisation Theory and ESOL Research Applications

Introduction

As English continues to become the lingua franca of choice in the business world, educators face both challenges and opportunities in delivering more effective educational services tied to the needs of second-language learners in an increasingly multicultural society. Using language as a key point of inquiry, a growing number of researchers are examining how the socialisation process can help English learners become more proficient and, through that proficiency, become more fully participating members of society. Because resources are by definition scarce, it is important to determine how a better understanding of the socialisation process can contribute to improved academic and social outcomes for English-language learners, making the focus of this paper particularly relevant and timely. This paper reviews the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature concerning the theory behind second language socialisation and some of its applications in current ESOL research. A summary of the research, important findings, and likely future trends are provided in the conclusion.

Background and Overview of Second Language Socialisation

As the need for second language instruction has grown in recent years, so too have the demands for more effective approaches (Firth & Wagner 2007). In this regard, Gregg emphasises that "in recent years, a number of researchers in the field of second language acquisition have voiced discontent regarding the tendency of second language acquisition (SLA) research to be conducted within a framework of cognitive science. Others have expressed this same discontent, and gone beyond it to call for a new SLA paradigm, the 'language socialization paradigm'" (2006, p. 413). This point is also made by Garrett and Baquedano-Lopez, who report that "in the two decades since its earliest formulation, the language socialization paradigm has proven coherent and flexible enough not merely to endure, but to adapt, to rise to these new theoretical and methodological challenges, and to grow" (2002, p. 339).

To date, research concerning language socialisation has largely been directed at developing a better understanding of how young children are socialised into the norms and patterns of their culture by and through language. Research based on this theoretical perspective has traditionally regarded the language socialisation process as "a dynamic and interactive process that extends throughout the lifespan as people come to participate in new communities, define and redefine themselves according to new roles, and either acquiesce in or challenge the definitions and role relationships formulated by others" (Schecter & Bayley 2004, p. 605).

The importance of fluency in the dominant language of any society — for accessing services, employment, and relationships — is well documented, but the precise reasons for second-language acquisition will likely differ from learner to learner, making studies that examine this need among various population groups especially important. In this regard, the results of a study by Alexander, Edwards, and Temple (2007) confirmed that English fluency is an important part of the assimilation process. Beyond this obvious association, however, there were interesting observations concerning how English fluency represents a boundary of sorts that defines the "haves" from the "have-nots." For instance, Alexander and her associates cite the recent focus on English instruction by the UK government as a means of facilitating socialisation and assimilation. According to Alexander et al., "In recent years, the Home Office has adopted a reinvigorated policy of citizenship education and integration towards both new immigrants and settled minority ethnic communities. One of the cornerstones of this new policy is English language, which is seen as a key tool for the successful integration of Britain's diverse communities" (2007, p. 783).

Based on their research, Alexander and her colleagues maintain that "English language is used symbolically as a cultural boundary marker, which both defines minority ethnic 'communities' and excludes them from the re-imagined national 'community'" (2007, p. 783). Using language as a departure point for further examination of the concept of socialisation in the community, these researchers conclude that "minority ethnic 'communities' are best understood as arising out of systems of localised 'personal' networks which challenge reified and abstract ideas of 'imagined communities' and provide insights into the performance of citizenship and belonging 'from below'" (Alexander et al. 2007, p. 783).

Operationalising the Theory: Key Concepts and Definitions

An operationalisation of the theoretical perspective is also in order. According to Brown, Anderson, Bauer, Berns, Hirst, and Miller (2006), "Socialization refers to the interactional processes through which novices develop the competence required for participation in the social life of a particular community or communities, including routine cultural practices, such as language and literacy activities, and local preferences for action, thought and emotion. These processes occur in large part through language, the primary symbolic medium of cultural reproduction and transformation" (p. 466). The theory supporting second language socialisation maintains that the needs of foreign language teachers include "the initiation, implementation and evaluation of language learning processes of which the cultures involved form an indispensable part" (Byram 2000, p. 44). With respect to the function of second language socialisation research, Byram distinguishes research from teaching as follows: "The function of research is to steadily advance our knowledge and understanding of language learning processes, while that of teaching is to make what we already know as transparent as possible to future teachers so that they can build on it in their teaching practice" (2000, p. 44).

From a second language socialisation perspective, the competence level needed to successfully navigate an English-language community — in ways that include facilitating communication with others — can be said to have been achieved when certain outcomes are consistently demonstrated. For example, Byram (2000) cites research by Kramsch (1993) and concludes that "if foreign language learners have intercultural communicative competence, they should be regarded as intercultural speakers who are able to interact with people from another country and culture in a foreign language and to negotiate a mode of communication and interaction which is satisfactory to themselves and the other and to act as mediator between people of different cultural origins" (p. 44). The role of language in this theoretical framework is therefore key. Byram adds that "their knowledge of another culture is linked to their language competence through their ability to use language appropriately… and their awareness of the specific meanings, values and connotations of the language" (2000, p. 44).

Applications of Second Language Socialisation in ESOL Research

A review of the recent literature concerning second language socialisation reveals a rapidly expanding body of research. While the scope of this growing field extends well beyond ESOL applications, a substantial number of studies do carry this focus. These studies are summarised below, together with the key findings that emerged from each. This approach is congruent with guidance provided by the American Psychological Association's Publication Manual (5th ed.), which states: "Word tables present qualitative comparisons or descriptive information. For example, a word table can enable the reader to compare characteristics of studies in an article that reviews many studies, or it can present questions and responses from a survey or show an outline of the elements of a theory. Word tables illustrate the discussion in the text" (2002, p. 161).

Conclusion

The research showed that socialisation describes the processes by which novices develop the competence needed to fully participate in the social life of a particular community or communities, including the day-to-day cultural practices — such as language and literacy activities — that take place in those settings, as well as the specific local preferences that characterise the language. Second language socialisation theory was also shown to be a useful framework for gaining valuable insights into how these processes operate through language as the primary symbolic medium of cultural reproduction and transformation. Taken together, the eight studies reviewed here demonstrate both the breadth of contexts in which SLS theory can be applied and the richness of findings it can generate for ESOL educators and researchers.