Voter Turnout in the US: Registration, ID Laws, and Voting Methods

Introduction

Voter turnout in the United States varies considerably from state to state. A clear example of this variation is the 2012 presidential election, where Hawaii recorded a 45% voter turnout while Minnesota reached 76%. Many different factors determine how many people cast ballots (Larocca & Klemanski, 2011). According to the Brennan Center (2020), lawmakers in 29 states have proposed bills designed to encourage more voting. These bills aim to streamline the voter registration process, facilitate absentee voting, allow people with past convictions to vote, and promote early in-person voting.

Something different is happening in 15 other states, where bills that make the voting process more complex have been introduced. Some of the proposed restrictions include reduced support for voters, limitations on voter ID acceptance, harsher punishments for election-related crimes, and more complicated absentee voting procedures. Legislators from these 15 states argue that their purpose is to secure elections and prevent a repeat of the credibility concerns raised during the 2016 presidential election.

Many factors determine voter turnout, but this paper focuses specifically on the voter registration process and voter identification procedures. It explains how voter participation can be increased through reduced registration requirements, expanded voting methods, and improved voter identification systems.

Background: Low Voter Participation in the United States

In the 2016 presidential election, approximately 92 million eligible voters did not turn out. The 2014 midterm election was even worse, with over 143 million American voters staying home — the lowest turnout in 72 years (Root & Kennedy, 2018). One pillar of democracy is fair representation in government, and voting is the primary means by which citizens place leaders of their choice into public office. According to a 2018 Pew Research Center survey, 74% of respondents rated voting as an essential activity that every loyal citizen should participate in, placing it on par with obeying the law and paying taxes (Pew Research Center, 2018).

Many Americans appear to understand the importance of voting and their role in shaping political decisions, yet why so many fail to turn out remains an important question. Unnecessarily complex voting procedures may be a significant contributing cause of low electoral participation. Feelings of isolation from government may also discourage some citizens from voting.

The United States can streamline its voting system by integrating pro-voter policies to encourage higher turnout. Unnecessary barriers — such as cumbersome registration and voting procedures — should be eliminated. More focus should be placed on ensuring the secure counting of votes so that every cast ballot is counted. Automating voter registration (AVR) could increase the number of registered voters across all 50 states, plus the District of Columbia, by over 50 million in a single year (Root & Kennedy, 2018). Restoring voting rights to current and former offenders could also raise the number of eligible voters by approximately 6 million. Public awareness campaigns highlighting the importance of voting should likewise be encouraged.

Registration Requirements and Their Effect on Voter Turnout

The minimum qualifications for voting in the United States are U.S. citizenship, residence in the country, and being at least eighteen years of age. These are the basic requirements, but individual states add other regulations that reduce the voting-eligible population (VEP). Additional conditions often include mental competency requirements and the absence of an active criminal case (Shino & Smith, 2018). Restrictions for people with criminal records vary by state, with some states enforcing unusually stringent requirements. In Kentucky and Florida, for example, ex-felons lose their right to vote unless pardoned by the governor. In Nevada and Mississippi, former prisoners can reclaim their voting rights. Vermont does not require a clean criminal record — unless the crime was election-related — and in Maine, a prisoner may vote as long as they are serving their sentence in a Maine prison.

Some states impose additional requirements unrelated to criminal history. Wisconsin cautions voters against wagering on election outcomes, and Vermont requires voters to recite the "Voter's Oath" — a declaration that one will vote with conscience and "without fear or favor of any person" — before completing registration (Ruth, Matusitz & Simi, 2017).

To grant all Americans a fair voting opportunity, Congress passed the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, also known as the "Motor Voter Act" or NVRA. The legislation was a significant milestone aimed at encouraging broader participation in ballot casting. Its purpose was to make both the registration and voting processes more accessible for all Americans by increasing the methods available for each. Most notably, Section 5 of the act allowed individuals to register to vote while applying for a driver's license, with the application forwarded directly to relevant election officials for processing (Ruth et al., 2017; Shino & Smith, 2018).

A straightforward voter registration system encourages more people to register. A strict system discourages participation, resulting in fewer registered voters. Because registered voter status is a primary requirement for casting a ballot in the United States, a lower number of registrants directly translates to lower turnout. Even if every registered voter shows up on Election Day, a large portion of the citizen population is excluded — an outcome that is problematic for a country that values democracy.

Empirical evidence supports this reasoning. Studies indicate that a 9% drop in voter turnout recorded in 1972 was attributable, at least in part, to strict registration laws. During this period, early registration deadlines were cited by many citizens as the reason they failed to register (Rosenstone & Wolfinger, 1978). The evidence confirms that registration requirements can have a considerable dampening effect on voter turnout.

Voting Methods and Their Impact on Participation

Individuals in the United States are permitted to cast ballots in several different ways. Historically, voting was conducted exclusively in person at designated polling stations on Election Day. During this earlier period, only members of the military serving away from home were permitted to use the absentee voting system. Over time, absentee voting was extended to civilians and conducted through the mail (Inbody, 2016).

Initially, using absentee voting required the voter to provide an excuse — such as illness or travel. Over time, many states began accepting absentee ballots without requiring a stated reason, while also embracing additional voting methods such as early in-person voting and universal vote-by-mail.

States such as Colorado, Oregon, and Washington use vote-by-mail as their primary method. Ballots are sent to all registered voters, who may return them by mail or in person. Although these three states encourage mail return, many voters in the 2016 elections still chose to return their ballots in person — prompting some to describe the system more accurately as "Ballot-Delivery-by-Mail," since only the ballot delivery was fully conducted through the postal system (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2018).

Historically, voters were required to cast ballots only at their designated electoral precinct. To consolidate and simplify this process, many states have established voting centers where any registered voter within the same jurisdictional hub may cast a ballot. Iowa, Wyoming, and South Dakota limit the use of jurisdiction hubs as voting centers to Election Day only (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2018).

Theoretically, an efficient voting system should support maximum voter turnout. Offering multiple voting methods allows citizens who cannot appear on Election Day to still exercise their right to vote. Evidence confirms that expanding options increases participation: allowing ballot casting before Election Day increases turnout by an estimated 2 to 4 percent (Gronke et al., 2008). Communities of color, in particular, tend to prefer early voting, so eliminating this option has a disproportionate impact. One estimate suggests that if early voting had been universally available in the 2016 election, an additional 789,500 voters would have participated (Root & Kennedy, 2018). Absentee voting has similarly increased turnout by roughly 3 percent. Introducing vote centers and vote-at-home policies in Colorado increased youth turnout by 9% and overall participation by between 2% and 5% (Menger, Stein & Vonnahme, 2015).

Conclusion

One of the defining characteristics of democracy is ensuring that a large proportion of the population exercises its right to vote. The United States is regarded as a country where democratic institutions have developed over many years, and it is therefore the government's responsibility to facilitate a smooth voter registration and voting process. While voting procedures differ across states, Congress sets minimum national standards through federal law. Because states are affiliated with either the Democratic or Republican Party, electoral laws are implemented with varying degrees of openness depending on each state's political leaning.

This paper examined the impact of voter registration requirements, voting systems, and voter identification laws on voter turnout. The evidence suggests that the voting system itself — meaning the range and accessibility of available voting methods — is the primary determinant of turnout. Voter identification and registration requirements can also affect participation, but they do not constitute absolute barriers to registration for all citizens. Some states do maintain stricter processes, but these apply uniformly to all voters within those states.

Considering both empirical and theoretical arguments, it is clear that an electoral system with minimal unnecessary requirements is more likely to encourage higher voter participation. At the same time, the existing system should not erect barriers so significant that large segments of the population are effectively excluded from the democratic process.