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" "Arkansas 2" gave us nothing to identify with except vague, generalized fear. This "differential reinforcement" (Althouse, Nardulli and Shaw 2001, p. 4) failed.
If these were the only campaign outreach, this would bear out the theory that negative or depressing / violent ads, even when they are supposed to support the incumbent rather than deride the opponent, mostly reinforce voters' existing attitudes (Althouse, Nardulli and Shaw 2001, p. 1-2), and drain resources away from where they could actually generate. If these types of commercials demoralize the American voter toward elections and government in general, we would think the politicians running for office would want to generate positive, rather than negative participation effects. Unless of course we are selling actual products, in which case "commercial advertisers should instead encourage the greater use of political advertising in general and negative political advertising in particular" (Iyengar and Prior, 1999 p. 10).
References
Althouse, S., Nardulli, P. And Shaw, D. (2001). Campaign Effects on Presidential Voting, 1992
2000. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 30 -- September 2, 2001, San Francisco, CA. Retrieved from www.communication.illinois.edu/salthaus/Research/campeffect.pdf
Benoit,...
And Chattopadhyay, S. (2007). A Meta-Analysis of Political
Advertising. Human Communication. A Publication of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association. 10 (4), 507 -- 522. Retrieved from http://epublications.marquette.edu/comm_fac/9/
Frankel, J and Orszag, P. (2001). Retrospective on American Economic Policy in the
1990's. The Brookings Institution. Retrieved from www.brookings.edu/papers/.../1102useconomics_orszag.aspx
Haynes, S. And Stone, J. (2004). 'Guns and Butter' in U.S. Presidential Elections. Department of Economics, University of Oregon Working Paper No. 91. Retrieved from economics.uoregon.edu/papers/UO-2004-12_Haynes_Stone_Guns_Butter.pdf
Iyengar, S. And Prior, M. (1999). Political Advertising: What Effect on Commercial
Advertisers?. Department of Communication, Stanford University. Retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/~siyengar/research/papers/advertising.html
Lau, R., Sigelman, L. And Rovner, I. (2007). The Effects of Negative Political Campaigns: A
Meta-Analytic Reassessment. The Journal of Politics. 69(4). 1176 -- 1209. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2586117. Retrieved from www.uiowa.edu/~c030111/campaigning/LauSigelman2007.pdf
U.S. Census Bureau (2000). Table CPH-L-162. Persons by Poverty Status in 1959, 1969, 1979,
1989, and 1999 by State. Retrieved from www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/data/census/1960/cphl162.xls - 2010-09-28
References
Althouse, S., Nardulli, P. And Shaw, D. (2001). Campaign Effects on Presidential Voting, 1992
2000. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 30 -- September 2, 2001, San Francisco, CA. Retrieved from www.communication.illinois.edu/salthaus/Research/campeffect.pdf
Benoit, W., Leshner, G. And Chattopadhyay, S. (2007). A Meta-Analysis of Political
Advertising. Human Communication. A Publication of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association. 10 (4), 507 -- 522. Retrieved from http://epublications.marquette.edu/comm_fac/9/
Advertisers?. Department of Communication, Stanford University. Retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/~siyengar/research/papers/advertising.html
Meta-Analytic Reassessment. The Journal of Politics. 69(4). 1176 -- 1209. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2586117. Retrieved from www.uiowa.edu/~c030111/campaigning/LauSigelman2007.pdf
2012 presidential campaigns, the use of television advertising was characterized by unprecedented advertising volumes. The political advertising in the 2012 presidential campaign contributed greatly to the win of Obama into office due to high consistency levels and coherence (Tedesco & Dunn, p. 80). The increase was attributed to outside groups like PACs who were able to raise and spend dollars in advertising for the current post-Citizens United regulatory regime.
Also, viewers may perceive the negative advertising as an infringement upon their right to decide for themselves. Such a perception may result in reactance, a boomerang effect in which the individual reacts in a manner opposite to the persuader's intention. What these studies show, then, is that a candidate is never going to know how for sure how a negative ad may impact the voters. In the long run,
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Many young people voted for Reagan as he represented rebellion against the authority figures in society but was a rebellion characterized by valiance and effectuated through skillful communication. The approval rating of Reagan was approximately 42% when 1982 began but dropped to the record low 35% later that same year. The U.S. entered a recession. If one is to set their focus upon obtaining a chance at being the