This paper provides an overview of three qualitative and mixed-methods research approaches in psychology: case studies, archival research, and content analysis. Drawing primarily on Cozby (2009) and Trochim (2008), the paper defines each method, explains when and why it is used, and outlines its major components. It discusses the psychobiography as a specialized form of case study, identifies the major sources of archival data (statistical records, survey archives, written records, and mass communication records), and distinguishes among the several types and phases of content analysis. Strengths and limitations of each approach are also noted.
A case study is research that describes an individual — usually a person, but also possibly a setting such as a business, school, or neighborhood (Cozby, 2009, p. 115). It can also describe an event, "such as a model school that failed" (Cozby, 2009, p. 115). Trochim describes a case study as "an intensive study of a specific individual or specific context" (2008, p. 147).
A typical case study of a person focuses on an individual with a rare or interesting condition and may cover his or her history, symptoms, characteristic behaviors, reactions to situations, or responses to treatment (Cozby, 2009, p. 115). In other words, a case study is used when a "naturally occurring" situation is seen to have the potential of providing valuable new scientific data.
Historic examples of case studies include that of "S," a man with an extraordinary ability to recall information, and "Genie," a child who was isolated from birth until 13 years of age and had never been spoken to (Cozby, 2009, p. 115). In both cases, researchers had the opportunity to study rare human situations that yielded one-of-a-kind, valuable psychological data (Cozby, 2009, p. 115).
Case studies are used extensively in business, law, and policy analysis, and while there is "no single way to conduct" one, methods are typically combined (Trochim, 2008, p. 147). Trochim asserts that case studies can be used not only in qualitative research but in quantitative research as well — for example, "providing participants with electronic data collection devices (sometimes called ambulatory data loggers) to capture a stream of live events in a natural context" (2008, p. 148).
Cozby states that case studies are valuable because they report unique data about often rare psychological phenomena, which can lead to hypotheses that may then be tested using other methods (2009, p. 116).
A psychobiography is a specific type of case study in which an individual — usually an "important historical figure" — is examined by a researcher who applies psychological theory to explain his or her life (Cozby, 2009, p. 115). It represents one of the most focused applications of the case study method, combining historical biographical research with formal psychological interpretation.
Archival research is performed using already existing data — public records, information from computer databases, and similar sources — to answer specific research questions (Cozby, 2009, p. 116). The researcher typically does not collect this data personally (Cozby, 2009, p. 116).
Cozby identifies the major sources of archival research data as statistical records, survey archives, and written and mass communication records (2009, p. 116).
Statistical records are collected by public and private organizations. The U.S. Census Bureau holds the most extensive collection of statistical records available for analysis (Cozby, 2009, p. 116). Numerous smaller organizations can also be accessed, as can public records such as marriage license applications (Cozby, 2009, p. 116).
Survey archives are typically provided by major polling organizations, the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, the National Science Foundation, and other organizations (Cozby, 2009, p. 117). They are also available on the Internet. These archives are composed of survey data held on computers and made available for use by researchers (Cozby, 2009, p. 117). Cozby notes that survey archives are particularly important because they allow researchers who lack the financial means to conduct their own surveys to access testable data (2009, p. 117).
Written records are documents such as diaries, letters, ethnographies, and public documents — which can include anything from political speeches to message board comments (Cozby, 2009, p. 117). Written records can be used to detect trends among specific cultures or segments of society, and Cozby adds that they can also be used to compare such trends across cultures or factions (2009, p. 117).
Mass communication records consist of books, magazine articles, films, television shows, and newspapers (Cozby, 2009, p. 117). A notable study using mass communication records coded "Dear Abby" and "Ann Landers" letters to assess whether the people who wrote them were genuinely interested in understanding the causes of the problems they described (Cozby, 2009, p. 117).
Cozby asserts that while archival data is valuable because it allows researchers to study questions that could not be investigated by any other method, it has two major pitfalls: data can be difficult to obtain, and accuracy is not guaranteed (2009, p. 118).
"Types, phases, and value of content analysis"
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