How Domestic Violence Affects Child Development

Introduction: Childhood, Brain Development, and Trauma

In Western culture, childhood is regarded as a period deserving special protection and rights. When a child is raised in a safe and nurturing environment, healthy development is expected to unfold naturally. When a child is born, the brain is approximately 25% of its adult weight, increasing to around 66% by the end of the first year. During these developing stages, the brain is most susceptible to the impact of traumatic experiences (Perry, 1997). Recent research indicates that exposure to extreme trauma can alter the organization of the brain, resulting in difficulties managing stress later in life (Brown & Bzostek, 2003).

According to attachment theory, a child's sense of security depends on the security of their attachment to their first caregiver. The kind of relationship developed with that caregiver also serves as a model for how to relate to others later in life. If the earliest relationships a child forms are not grounded in safety and trust, the effects are likely to be extensive and long lasting. Research on attachment during infancy suggests that the more serious the level of partner violence in the home, the higher the likelihood of the child developing insecure and disorganized attachments. According to Gunnar (1998), insecure infants are found to have elevated cortisol levels even in response to mild stressors.

Defining Domestic Violence and Its Developmental Impact

Domestic violence can be defined as the ongoing physical, sexual, or psychological abuse that one is made to witness or endure at home. It is practiced in order to gain control and establish power over another person. At present, awareness of domestic violence in society is increasing. When a child is constantly exposed to domestic violence at home, it tends to produce both emotional and behavioral problems. Their development is further affected because these children often face unexpected and immediate changes in their home or school environment, along with parental separation.

When considering the effects of domestic violence on child development, the focus is typically on children residing in homes where spousal abuse occurs frequently. According to Cleaver et al. (1999), studies indicate that when violent incidents took place in domestic situations, they very often occurred in the presence of children. As a result, these children were also frequently subjected to abuse themselves. When the environment in which a child is raised becomes characterized by violence and fear, a direct effect on the child's development is observed.

Attachment, Emotional, and Behavioral Consequences

Children who witness domestic violence are considerably more likely to experience social, behavioral, and emotional problems than children raised in safe and secure environments. A child from a family in which domestic violence is practiced tends to exhibit antisocial and aggressive behavior. These children are also more likely to experience depression and anxiety as they grow older (Brown & Bzostek, 2003). Additionally, they often struggle in school with motor, cognitive, and verbal skills. Research indicates that male children exposed to domestic violence at a young age are more likely to perpetrate domestic violence themselves as adults, while females are more likely to become victims of domestic violence in adulthood (Brown & Bzostek, 2003).

A young child may not be able to develop a sense of trust or security if the home environment is dangerous and violent. Research suggests that by age three, children who have been exposed to domestic violence may respond to adult anger with increased aggression toward their peers and with heightened distress (Cummings, 1994). Children who observe violence in the home experience the same level of negative psychosocial outcomes as children who are direct victims of physical abuse (Kitzmann, 2003).

According to Brandon (1996), some research suggests roughly equal rates of violence committed by men and women; however, other research challenges this view. The number of incidents in which women are victims of violence exceeds those in which men are victims. Moreover, women tend to suffer greater physical and emotional harm from violence than men do. Women are at a considerably higher risk of being severely and lethally abused by their male partners. When a child must live with the ongoing abuse of his or her mother, this constitutes a form of emotional abuse in itself, with negative consequences for the child's emotional and mental health, as well as a direct effect on their future relationships (Brandon, 1996).

Direct exposure to violence includes witnessing physical and sexual assaults on one's mother. Beyond direct observation, children may also overhear violent incidents or encounter their aftermath. Domestic violence also raises the risk of direct physical and sexual abuse of children. Research by Osofsky (1999) suggests that children who witness domestic violence at home are 15 times more likely to be physically abused and neglected compared with children who do not face such situations. Households in which domestic violence occurs are also more likely to fail to meet the basic needs of their children. When a woman is repeatedly abused, the effect is visible in the mother-child relationship as well. The bond between mother and child is compromised because these women often experience low self-esteem, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression. Research also indicates that domestic violence directly affects a woman's ability to assert authority and maintain appropriate control over her children. In a number of cases, adolescents demonstrate physical aggression toward their parents (Jackson, 2003), and this aggression tends to increase as the child grows older.