Intercultural Communication: Key Concepts and Frameworks

Culture and Subculture

A culture is a "community or population sufficiently large enough to be self-sustaining," in that it can be self-perpetuating (p. 6). According to Hofstede, there are four main elements of culture: symbols, rituals, values, heroes, and myths (p. 6). These elements of culture are transmitted via formal institutions like schools and also informally through peers and family members. Identifying with a culture helps to create a cultural identity; an individual identifies with the history, symbols, rituals, values, heroes, and myths of that culture.

A culture within a culture is called a subculture. Subcultures usually exist in large and complex societies (p. 8). A subculture is generally more specific than a culture in that it can be based on ethnicity or lifestyle. A person can also identify with both the broader culture and a subculture at the same time.

Historical and Varying Perspectives on Communication

Theorists have identified at least seven traditional perspectives on communication (p. 39). These include the rhetorical tradition of Aristotle; the semiotic tradition, which examines signs and symbols; the phenomenological tradition, involving personal experience and dialogue; the cybernetic tradition, incorporating information systems; the sociopsychological tradition, emphasizing behavior; the sociocultural tradition, which focuses on society and culture; and the critical tradition, stressing power and oppression in human history. There are also Confucian perspectives on communication, which stress the need for social harmony, respect for tradition, and respect for authority and hierarchy (p. 44).

Context is an important component of communication, as environmental and situational variables have a strong impact on the coding and decoding of messages. Physical location, type of social relationship, and individual factors all influence the context of communication as well as its quality.

High vs. Low Context Communication

Cultures can be classified according to their perception of context in the process of communication. Researchers have shown significant differences in the ways people from different cultures perceive signs, images, and other types of communication messages. For example, some people are better at detecting changes in a background environment, while others are better at perceiving changes in the foreground of the same image (pp. 69–70).

Cultures that value context are referred to as high-context cultures; these are the cultures most likely to notice shifts in the background rather than the foreground. Asian cultures, Native American cultures, and most Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures have been classified as high-context (p. 70). In contrast, North American and Northern European cultures are classified as low-context because messages in these cultures are intended to be explicit rather than dependent on context. Low-context cultures also tend to place greater value on verbal abilities than high-context cultures (p. 70).

Barriers and Enablers to Multicultural Communication

Barriers to multicultural communication include anxiety, assuming similarity instead of difference, ethnocentrism, prejudice, and stereotyping (p. 82). Anxiety is a natural and understandable barrier, but one that can impede successful communication. While it is not helpful to assume only differences, assuming similarity projects unreasonable and unrealistic values and norms onto others, which also impedes communication. Ethnocentrism is a cluster of phenomena based on the assumption that one's own culture is superior — or at least provides a valid basis from which to judge others. Stereotypes are generalizations that, while sometimes containing a kernel of truth, also produce unhealthy reactions such as prejudicial attitudes and behaviors.