Music Preferences, Personality, and Social Behavior: A Review

Introduction: Music as a Social and Psychological Force

Music has been acknowledged as a universal form of communication. Even across language barriers, music allows the sharing of feelings, thoughts, and meanings. Research is finding that it can be an invaluable tool of communication, education, and therapy for those with special needs or disorders. Music is recognized for its ability to evoke profound emotions, but modern technology is only beginning to reveal how many of these responses are actually the result of powerful physical and physiological effects that various aspects of music have on the human body (Hargreaves, 1997, 1999).

The importance of music also stems from the fact that it plays an increasingly significant role in the lives of the average modern individual. Each of us is surrounded by music targeted at us from radio, television, films, advertisements, the internet, and various other commercial channels produced by technology. It is no longer a distinct aspect of cultures and traditional rites, but rather a part of everyday life. It affects our moods and infiltrates the thought processes that shape our identities and behavior (Hargreaves, 1997, 1999).

The idea of personality and self has evolved over the years to now being described as "something which is constantly being reconstructed and renegotiated according to the experiences, situations and other people with whom we interact in everyday life" (Hargreaves, 1999). Our identities and self-concepts are affected by a complex set of factors that have emerged in modern lifestyles due to globalization and technology. Interwoven among these influences is the role of music (Hargreaves, 1997, 1999).

Music psychology is a diverse and ever-expanding field with connections to disciplines such as cognitive science and computing, sociology, cultural studies, anthropology, education, medicine and health studies, acoustics, broadcasting, marketing, and communication studies, as well as music and musicology (Hargreaves, 1999). Cognitive psychology of music investigates the effects of tones, intervals, and scales on listeners and explores the intricacies of musical structure and its impact on memory and perception (Hargreaves, 1997). It has even branched out to include topics such as musical expression, performance, emotional effects of music, and other issues of practical importance to musicians (Hargreaves, 1997, 1999).

What this paper attempts to explore, however, is the social psychology of music. Through analysis of various studies, we will investigate how our interaction with music — through its creation, performance, listening, and review — affects our behavior and personalities. We will evaluate the social functions of music in the lives of individuals. Research suggests that these functions are evident in three main ways: in the management of interpersonal relationships, mood, and self-identity (Hargreaves, 1999).

Music often determines the social groups we associate with, especially in the case of teenagers. Evidence also suggests that people use music to regulate their moods depending on social situation and environment. The concept of a musical identity is also emerging, which alludes to the individual's sense of identity formed through his or her interaction with music (Hargreaves, 1997, 1999).

It is being discovered that the development of musical identity follows specific age-related patterns. Papousek (1996) relates early musicality to the development of speech and communication. The formulation of musical identities in children is grounded both in a biological predisposition to musicality and in particular groups and institutions in their everyday lives. Issues such as age, gender, and personality differences have all been related to this hypothesis (Hargreaves, 1997, 1999).

Musical Identity, Self-Concept, and Genre

The self-image develops through a process of monitoring our own behavior and making social comparisons. Our self-esteem results from the difference between our real and ideal self-image: the greater the difference, the lower the self-esteem. Just as language plays an important role in constructing identities, music has been recognized to serve a similar function. "Musical taste" can be an integral part of one's self-concept, especially in adolescence (Hargreaves, 1999). Musical preferences vary according to age, level of musical training, aspects of cognitive style and personality, and cultural and social group membership. They even vary according to mood, time of day, or social situation. Music can have both a short-term, temporary effect and a profound influence on our beliefs and behavior (Hargreaves, 1997, 1999).

Specific identities exist in music, derived from either the musical instrument focused upon or the genre. A review of the literature suggests that specific groups of instrument players have distinctive personality profiles, as do singers and conductors — profiles perhaps reinforced by the stereotypical views each group holds of the others. This trend is even more pronounced in the case of different musical genres, each being associated with specific social groups and lifestyles (Hargreaves, 1999).

Review of Key Studies in Music Psychology

The following section summarizes seven peer-reviewed journal articles that each address some aspect of music in relation to personality. Studied both separately and as a whole, they emphasize the influence of music in shaping and modifying the personalities of individuals.

Music Preferences, Personality Style, and Developmental Issues of Adolescents

This study isolated three groups of adolescent music listeners who separately preferred light qualities of music, heavy qualities of music, or had eclectic preferences. A total of 175 participants — 97 females and 78 males — took part from junior and senior high schools in Calgary, Alberta. Questionnaires measured adolescent music preferences and personality, and correlated developmental behaviors. The Likert scale was used to assess how much participants enjoyed music, while the Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory quantified personality characteristics and developmental issues.

Each of the three groups displayed a distinct pattern of personality dimensions and developmental issues. The group preferring heavy music was characterized by independent, non-conformist individuals with lower self-esteem and higher self-doubt. They were suspicious, aggressive, antagonistic, and displayed an insensitive manner. Those preferring light music were conservative, serious-minded, efficient, and rule-conscious, though they showed difficulty in adapting sexually and in balancing dependence on peers. Eclectic listeners appeared the most adjusted and least concerned with developmental issues. What remains to be studied is whether eclectic taste in music facilitates adolescent adjustment, or whether better-adjusted adolescents naturally gravitate toward eclectic tastes (Schwartz, 2003).

Heavy Metal Music and Adolescent Suicidality: An Empirical Investigation

This study investigated the suicidal risk of adolescent heavy metal fans, hypothesizing that such adolescents would show more maladaptive cognitive patterns — especially females. A further aim was to evaluate the relationship between music listening, negative affect, and suicidal risk. A total of 121 high school students from a single public institution in the American Midwest participated; over 90% were Caucasian, with 77 females and 44 males. The Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL) was used to assess suicide risk, while the Likert scale was used to assess music preferences.

Heavy metal fans were found to have significantly lower RFL total scores and also lower scores on Responsibility to Family, Survival and Coping Beliefs, and — for males — Moral Objections to suicide. Scores for male and female fans were similar. The researchers inferred that strained family relationships displayed by these adolescents may be the cause of greater suicide risk rather than their musical preference per se. The positive effects of listening to their preferred music type were less evident in heavy metal fans, indicating personal characteristics and/or life situations that encouraged suicidal thoughts. The study supported previous research claiming that a preference for heavy metal music should be taken as a valuable signal to examine an adolescent's social and emotional functioning — that heavy metal attracts, rather than produces, troubled teens (Scheel, 1999).

Exposure to Violent Media: The Effects of Songs with Violent Lyrics on Aggressive Thoughts and Feelings

This study investigated the effects of songs with violent lyrics on aggressive thoughts and hostile feelings. Five similar but varying experiments were performed using college students from a large Midwestern university. Experiments 1 and 2 assessed the effects of violent lyrics on state hostility and aggressive cognitions, while Experiment 3 used a broader set of songs and a different measure of aggressive cognition. Experiments 4 and 5 examined the combined effects of violent and humorous song lyrics on aggressive thought and affect, and included trait hostility as a variable. Instruments used included the State Hostility Scale, a five-point Likert scale, the PAS, a word-completion task, and the Music Questionnaire. Sample sizes varied from 60 to 200 per experiment, with an approximately equal gender ratio.

Experiments 1, 3, 4, and 5 demonstrated that hostility increased in students exposed to violent song lyrics compared to those who heard a similar but nonviolent song. Experiments 2 through 5 demonstrated a similar increase in aggressive thoughts. These effects replicated across songs and song types (e.g., rock, humorous, non-humorous). Experiments 3 through 5 also demonstrated that trait hostility was positively related to state hostility but did not moderate the song lyric effects. Repeated exposure to violent lyrics may contribute to the development of an aggressive personality, though these effects were usually short-term. Indirectly, the short-term hostility evoked by such songs affected individuals' perceptions of social situations and thus induced antagonistic behavior that produced long-term negative responses from peers, generating further aggression (Anderson, 2003).

The Do Re Mi's of Everyday Life: Examining the Structure and Personality Correlates of Music Preferences

This series of six studies explored individual differences in music preferences, examined lay beliefs about music, identified the underlying structure of music preferences, and explored links between music preferences and personality. Over 3,500 participants covering multiple samples, geographic regions, and methods were used. Questionnaires and opinion polls were used to formulate the final instrument, the Short Test of Music Preferences (STOMP). Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was also performed using LISREL. Studies 1 through 3 used between 70 and 1,700 University of Texas at Austin undergraduate students, while Study 4 was an online study using participants from across the United States. Study 5 used seven judges representing a variety of musical tastes, and Study 6 drew on samples from Studies 2 and 3 to assess personality using the Big Five Inventory.

The data showed that music was an important aspect of people's lives — one they engaged with frequently in a variety of situations. Participants believed that their music preferences mirrored significant aspects of their personalities and those of others. The combined studies revealed four distinct dimensions of music preferences: Reflective and Complex, Intense and Aggressive, Upbeat and Conventional, and Energetic and Rhythmic. These dimensions related to various Big Five personality dimensions, distinct in their complexity, emotional valence, and energy level. This comprehensive study identified definite relationships between music preferences and existing personality dimensions, self-views, and cognitive abilities (Rentfrow, 2003).

Music Shifts Frontal EEG in Depressed Adolescents

The fact that music is known to reduce stress and improve mood formed the basis for this study, which assessed the effects of music on chronically depressed adolescents — particularly the effects on right frontal EEG activation and cortisol levels. Twenty-eight chronically depressed adolescent females were recruited from a clinic based on their Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores and Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) diagnoses. They were single, aged 14 to 19, and were African-American (65%) or Hispanic (35%), with a low socioeconomic status. Instruments used were behavior observations (BOS) and self-report data (DACL), both of which showed no changes during or following the music sessions. No positive effects of music on depressed behavior or self-reported mood state were noted.

In contrast, EEG and stress hormone levels were significantly affected by music. This implies that it may not be music itself that produces beneficial effects; rather, it may be the mood induction procedure that is calming. Right frontal activation reportedly remains stable in chronically depressed adults even when behavioral symptoms disappear. The significant alteration in EEG observed despite no behavioral or self-report changes may be due to participants having less conscious control over EEG and cortisol levels than over self-report and behavior, or it may indicate that biochemical changes occur more immediately than behavioral and "felt" mood state changes (Field, 1998).

A Prospective Study of Exposure to Rap Music Videos and African-American Female Adolescents' Health

This study evaluated the effect of exposure to rap music videos on African-American females and examined whether this exposure could predict the occurrence of health-risk behavior, sexually transmitted diseases, and aggressive behavior. The sample consisted of 522 single African-American females between the ages of 14 and 18 who had been sexually active during the six months prior to the study. They were from non-urban, lower-socioeconomic neighborhoods. Their media viewing habits were assessed through a questionnaire that examined frequency and type of rap videos watched and with whom. Also considered were the subjects' age, employment status, and level of involvement in extracurricular and religious activities.

Univariate analyses assessed music video viewing characteristics at baseline, while bivariate analyses correlated adolescents' level of exposure to rap music videos at baseline, potential covariates, and the incidence of health-risk behaviors during a 12-month follow-up. After controlling for covariates, greater exposure to rap music videos was found to be independently associated with a wide range of negative health outcomes — including a greater chance of having been arrested, having hit a teacher, having multiple sexual partners, having contracted a new sexually transmitted disease, and having used drugs and/or alcohol during the 12-month follow-up period. Further study is needed to rule out the effect of other obvious influences.

Exploring the Relationship between Personality Characteristics and the Appreciation of Rock Music

This study investigated the relationship of five specific personality characteristics — extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism, reactive rebelliousness, and proactive rebelliousness — with a preference for soft/non-rebellious and hard/rebellious rock-music videotapes. Of 138 undergraduate participants, 78 were female and 60 were male. Personality tests were performed prior to exposure to the music. It was found that respondents scoring high on psychoticism or high on reactive rebelliousness enjoyed hard/rebellious rock-music videotapes more than did their peers. Scores on extraversion, neuroticism, and proactive rebelliousness were not associated with enjoyment. Gender differences also emerged: women showed a tendency to enjoy soft/non-rebellious rock music, while men tended to enjoy hard/rebellious rock (Robinson, 1996).

Conclusion

Nicholas Cook (1998) puts the influence of music on our social behavior succinctly: "In today's world, deciding what music to listen to is a significant part of deciding and announcing to people not just who you 'want to be'... but who you are" (Cook, 1998). What researchers must recognize, however, is that to truly assess the impact of music on personality, other facets of people's everyday lives must be integrated into the research framework.