Psychosocial Factors in Juvenile Offender Rehabilitation

Introduction: Gaps in Traditional Offender Programming

It is typically the norm for many offender programs to follow the long-standing conventions that have been developed over the last few generations. However, the traditional approach does not seem to fully consider the psychosocial factors that influence individual engagement in intervention settings. While factors related to offending behavior are well known within the research community, their influence on what causes the behavior or on motivational engagement still remains unclear. Brooks and Khan (2015) pursued these gaps in knowledge by creating a study that examined the precursors to behavior and engagement by interviewing and monitoring 109 juvenile offenders. The sample existed within a non-custodial community intervention, and the researchers explored antisocial behavior, the influence of aggression, and disruptive and problematic behavior during school hours. They also monitored and explored self-esteem and parental bonding as possible moderators and reported on the motivation to engage in such situations.

Their results revealed relationships among these variables and identified four subtypes of motivation: amotivation, identified regulation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. The compiled results indicated that determinants of self-esteem appearing in the data were decidedly mixed and did not reveal new information. The results also suggest that the nature of motivation is complex, and that for intervention strategies to work, they must provide the individual with a sense of competence and self-autonomy. As the authors concluded, "The findings highlight the multidimensional and complex nature of motivation, and support the need to internalize extrinsic motivations through the promotion of self-autonomy and competence within intervention programs in order to maximize engagement" (Brooks & Khan, 2015, p. 351).

Motivation, Self-Autonomy, and Engagement in Interventions

These results were supported by another study that highlighted the need for intervention strategies to consider what will motivate adolescents to engage in positive behaviors — behaviors that could ultimately prevent further conflicts with the justice system. That study found that juveniles tend to find intervention methods that encourage participation and self-autonomy more interesting and influential than those that merely address the "base needs" of an adolescent (Cooper, 2015, p. 285). For example, if a rehabilitation program sought to enable positive coping mechanisms for juvenile offenders by engaging in thoughtful discussion with them about their lives and how they envision their futures, this may be more helpful than treating all juvenile offenders equally within a standardized routine. They require some level of individualized attention in order to feel sufficiently motivated to follow through with program protocols and face their unique challenges.

Feelings and motivation are closely associated, and if an individual does not hold a positive outlook toward a program or intervention strategy, it will most likely prove ineffective. DeLisi and Vaughn (2014) have argued that the association between temperament and behavior has been recognized for hundreds of years, yet it has not been clearly discussed or integrated within crime theory. Their perspective therefore represents a relatively new application of these concepts. Their study was a meta-analysis incorporating research and theory from over three hundred studies across fields including genetics, psychiatry, neuroscience, and criminology, and it introduced a criminal justice system model implicating a temperament-based theory of antisocial behavior. This line of reasoning also helped to identify temperamental constructs that could be applied to recognize previously undetected connections between relevant factors.

A 2014 qualitative study collected frontline viewpoints in order to address the challenge of meeting the criminogenic needs of youths within a risk-need-responsivity (RNR)-based case management framework. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in a controlled setting with twenty-nine probation officers in Toronto, Canada. Emergent themes included the significance of targeting "high impact" criminogenic needs, the lack of evidence-based programming, the salience of particular responsivity factors within case management, and respondents' uncertainty about their role in meeting youths' criminogenic needs. The findings demonstrate the need for research probing the connection between explicit responsivity factors, criminogenic needs, and educational outcomes for youth on probation. "Findings also support recent initiatives that provide concrete training to probation officers around the implementation of the need and responsivity principles in effective case management of justice-involved youth" (Haqanee, Peterson-Badali & Skilling, 2014, p. 37).

This study also revealed several directions for further research regarding juvenile offenders. A 2006 study explored targeting the self-esteem of youth offenders as a means of effective treatment (Hubbard, 2006, p. 40). A similar approach was adopted by a 2011 study that sought to understand youth offenders' expectations for success in rehabilitation-type programs and interventions (Iselin, Mulvey, Loughran, Chung & Schubert, 2011, p. 239). While neither study produced definitive results, both brought to the forefront the importance of addressing success expectations among youth offenders and of tracking changes in self-esteem that result from participation in such efforts. By addressing the genuine psychological concerns and needs of juvenile offenders during intervention phases, practitioners may help reduce the risk associated with predispositions that lead juvenile offenders to re-offend in the future.

Temperament and Antisocial Behavior

The researchers discovered that negative emotionality and effortful control are two temperamental constructs that serve as major indicators of behavioral problems and self-regulation deficits — from infancy through adolescence and across adulthood. As DeLisi and Vaughn (2014) stated, "Two temperamental constructs — effortful control and negative emotionality — are significantly predictive of self-regulation deficits and behavioral problems in infancy, in toddlerhood, in childhood, in adolescence, and across adulthood" (p. 10). If these constructs are identified within prevention programs and incorporated into assessments of juveniles and juvenile offenders, they may contribute to the design of more effective intervention strategies.

More insights into effective rehabilitation are provided by a 2014 study that identified the juvenile offenders' need for stimulation as a common behavioral predisposition. "Results showed that need for stimulation, 'irresponsibility,' and callous & unemotional were sensitive to changes in respondents' varying psychopathy levels, whereas lack of realistic, long-term goals; superficial charm; and revocation of conditional release were less so" (Tsang, Piquero & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1333). Studying factors such as lack of motivation, absence of long-term goals, and other behavioral characteristics commonly associated with offenders provides insights into the complex nature of criminal behavior. Rehabilitation of criminal offenders, especially juvenile offenders, must clearly involve the study of individual motivations and behaviors to be effective (Ward, 2012). Traditional methods of offender rehabilitation have yet to apply such considerations, despite substantial evidence suggesting that addressing psychosocial factors is more effective in preventing negative outcomes such as juvenile re-offense.

Conclusion: Integrating Psychosocial Factors into Rehabilitation

In a 2013 study, researchers sought to investigate the usefulness of two main methods for translating research into evidence-based practice within the juvenile justice setting. These methods were introduced in the form of brand-name programs — recognized via lists compiled by expert groups and accompanied by quality guarantees provided by program developers — and large-scale meta-analyses offering universal approaches for refining existing programs. The results suggest that brand-name programs carry a significant advantage in terms of application success when compared to universal programs. Both approaches were judged favorably: "brand-name programs and meta-analyses represent two rigorous and transparent approaches for advancing evidence-based practice in juvenile justice. State governments should consider the merits of both approaches through a decision-tree model" (Welsh, Rocque & Greenwood, 2013, p. 207).

Such studies help clarify salient factors that would otherwise be overlooked within vague intervention models and have the potential to significantly refine and strengthen rehabilitation and prevention programs in the future. Traditional methods of offender rehabilitation have yet to fully apply psychosocial considerations despite substantial evidence that addressing these factors is more effective in preventing negative outcomes — including juvenile re-offense. Rehabilitation of juvenile offenders must clearly incorporate the study of individual motivations, temperament, and social context if it is to succeed. As the body of evidence reviewed here demonstrates, evidence-based juvenile justice programming that is individualized, responsive to psychosocial complexity, and grounded in empirical research offers the most promising path toward reducing recidivism and supporting healthy adolescent development.