Relational Cultural Theory: Origins, Core Concepts, and Practice

Introduction to Relational Cultural Theory

As with all disciplines, research and theory develop to fill a need — something that is dissonant or out of sorts with either an individual or society. In the case of Relational Cultural Theory (RCT), it seeks to fulfill a deficiency in both. Born from the impact of disconnection between an individual and others and his or her culture at large, RCT explores the adaptive, or in many cases maladaptive, strategies that an individual uses to fit into whatever relationships may be available. These strategies are often enacted regardless of the debilitating consequences — both emotional and sometimes physical — that the individual may have to endure to survive.

Jean Baker Miller, over many years, developed the concept of RCT in reaction to the enfeebling role that many women found themselves in. In her book Toward a New Psychology of Women (1976), she began to explore the fundamental differences a woman's psyche possesses as opposed to the often generic and pigeonholed personality that psychologists had thus far offered:

The ideas in Miller's book emerged from her clinical practice with women, in which she noted that the centrality of relationships in her clients' lives was inconsistent with the traditional theories of counseling and human development she had been taught in medical school. According to Miller and other feminist theorists of the time, these traditional theoretical models emphasize individuation, separation, and autonomy as markers of emotional maturity and psychological health. (Comstock et al. 280)

This perception was in direct opposition to Miller's clinical experience. She found that women were debilitated by the processes of individuation, separation, and autonomy — concepts shaped largely by male-dominated thinking — rather than enhanced by them. In fact, women not only had to contend with this prejudice of personality on an individual relational basis but also with society at large, which at the time often downplayed issues such as domestic violence, further disconnecting the women involved from the helping resources that might have been available.

Origins and Development of RCT

Miller was appointed as the first director of the Stone Center in 1981, and the theory-building group she had been working with since 1976 found a home there. The center's mission was to study psychological development and the prevention of psychological problems. Over the next twenty years, the proceedings from the colloquia of this theory group were recorded and published as "works in progress," and they now make up the core writings that established the fundamental concepts of RCT.

RCT has its roots in the understanding of women's psychological experience, but has since come to offer a broader comprehension of all human experience. RCT is especially concerned with finding the imbalances between power and privilege in relationships and within society (Pack-Brown, Thomas, and Seymour). Such negative events include cultural oppression, social exclusion, and other forms of social injustice, which "underlie the pain and trauma that individuals in marginalized and devalued groups routinely experience in their lives" (Comstock et al. 282).

RCT is the foundation for a growing body of research on depression, trauma, eating disorders, substance abuse, chronic illness, mother-daughter relationships, and lesbian relationships, as well as issues of racism, sexism, heterosexism, and classism, along with a multitude of other psychological and social problems (Hartling & Ly, 2000).

There are certainly common threads to be found among multicultural, feminist, and social justice groups that RCT can help fully explore. In fact, RCT has assisted this particular combination of groups at both a societal and therapeutic level:

…not only do counselors who operate from multicultural, feminist, and social justice counseling paradigms direct time and energy toward stimulating positive changes among the individual clients with whom they work, they also strive to intentionally ameliorate social injustices that adversely affect the mental health of larger numbers of persons in oppressed and marginalized groups in contemporary society. (Crethar, Rivera, and Nash)

The focus that Miller and her theory group began in 1976 has certainly found fruition in the current practice of counselors and therapists on a larger scale.

One practice that RCT employs is the use of empathy within the therapeutic relationship. By creating a mutually empathic encounter, many other opportunities reveal themselves for the counselor to become more culturally effective and open-minded to the different relational choices of that culture. These empathic settings give both the client and the counselor a chance to explore each other's worldviews and beliefs on many levels. By creating a give-and-take — a sharing of experience, concepts, and reactions to similar situations — each party can come away with a deeper understanding of the other's personality and life experiences (Comstock et al.; Jordan, "The role of mutual").

RCT further complements the multicultural and social justice movement by serving as an alternative theoretical framework from which mental health professionals can explore how issues related to sex-role socialization, power, dominance, marginalization, and subordination affect the mental health and relational development of all people (Comstock et al. 283).

Core Assumptions and the Five Good Things

Some of the core RCT beliefs and theoretical assumptions that explain the complex process of psychological and relational growth and development can be summarized as follows:

1. People grow through and toward relationship throughout the life span.

2. Movement toward mutuality rather than separation characterizes mature functioning.

3. The ability to participate in increasingly complex and diversified relational networks characterizes psychological growth.

4. Mutual empathy and mutual empowerment are at the core of growth-fostering relationships.

5. Authenticity is necessary for real engagement in growth-fostering relationships.

6. When people contribute to the development of growth-fostering relationships, they themselves grow as a result of their participation.

7. The goal of development is the realization of increased relational competence over the life span. (Jordan, "The role of mutual" 1007–08)

Miller also cited very specific outcomes from experiences of being in connection rather than disconnection. She referred to these as the "five good things":

1. Each person feels a greater sense of zest (vitality, energy).

2. Each person feels more able to act and does act in the world.

3. Each person has a more accurate picture of herself or himself and of the other person(s).

4. Each person feels a greater sense of worth.

5. Each person feels more connected to other persons and exhibits a greater motivation to connect with people beyond those in one's primary relationships. (Miller, "What do we mean" 2)

All of these qualities share the characteristics of a mutually empathic and growth-fostering relationship with others and with the culture at large.

Works Cited

Comstock, Dana L., et al. "Relational-Cultural Theory: A Framework for Bridging Relational, Multicultural, and Social Justice Competencies." Journal of Counseling and Development 86.3 (2008): 279–288.

Crethar, Hugh C., Edil Torres Rivera, and Sara Nash. "In Search of Common Threads: Linking Multicultural, Feminist, and Social Justice Counseling Paradigms." Journal of Counseling and Development 86.3 (2008): 269–276.

Erikson, E. H., & Erikson, J. M. The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997.

Germer, Christopher K., Ronald D. Siegel, and Paul R. Fulton, eds. Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. New York: Guilford Press, 2005.

Hartling, L. M., & Ly, J. "Relational References: A Selected Bibliography of Theory, Research, and Applications." Project Report, No. 7. Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 2000.

Jordan, J. V. "Toward Connection and Competence." Work in Progress, No. 83. Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1999.

Jordan, J. V. "The Role of Mutual Empathy in Relational-Cultural Therapy." In Session: Psychotherapy in Practice 55 (2000): 1005–1016.

McPhail, Beverly A. "Re-gendering the Social Work Curriculum: New Realities and Complexities." Journal of Social Work Education 44.2 (2008): 33–47.

Miller, J. B. Toward a New Psychology of Women. Boston: Beacon Press, 1976.

Miller, J. B. "What Do We Mean by Relationships?" Work in Progress No. 22. Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1986.

Miller, J. B., & Stiver, I. P. The Healing Connection: How Women Form Relationships in Therapy and in Life. Boston: Beacon Press, 1997.

Miller, J. B. Connections, Disconnections, and Violations. Work in Progress, No. 33. 1988.

Pack-Brown, Sherlon P., Tequilla L. Thomas, and Jennifer M. Seymour. "Infusing Professional Ethics into Counselor Education Programs: A Multicultural/Social Justice Perspective." Journal of Counseling and Development 86.3 (2008): 296–309.