This paper traces the development of scientific methodology as it applies to psychological research. Beginning with Renaissance thinkers and progressing through the contributions of Bacon, Hobbes, Descartes, Locke, and Newton, the paper examines how philosophical traditions shaped modern scientific inquiry. It then outlines the five core steps of the scientific method — problem identification, study design, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation — and illustrates these steps using a concrete example from Alzheimer's disease research. The paper argues that while the scientific method appears straightforward, acquiring new and generalizable knowledge remains a complex endeavor.
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Psychologists conduct research on a variety of topics that follow the basics of scientific methodology. They identify a specific problem, determine the appropriate methodology to study that problem, collect the required data, analyze and interpret that data, and report their findings and conclusions. This approach has long been a foundational part of the science of psychology.
The term "science" denotes both a certain type of activity and its results (Wolman 1960, p. 497). A distinction is frequently made between the actual "research" conducted and the resulting "system," both of which are described as scientific. Scientific research is aimed at the discovery of truth, and a scientific system includes propositions, statements, or sentences that represent this truth (Wolman 1960, p. 497). Whitehead (1911, p. 157) noted that common sense is "a bad master for the evaluation of knowledge." Science revolves around the terms "systematic" and "controlled." Scientists systematically build theoretical structures and examine them for internal inconsistencies. Furthermore, in scientific research, the scientist attempts to eliminate variables that are potential — but non-hypothesized — causes of the observed effects.
The concept of scientific thought stems from the end of the Middle Ages, when Renaissance thinkers renewed their interest in learning. From the 15th to the 17th centuries, scientists gained a strong appreciation for the importance of mathematical reasoning and experimental observation. Nicholas Copernicus described the mathematical harmony of the world (Franklin, Allison & Gorman 1996, p. 24). He reasoned that there was a mathematical simplicity to the heavens, suggesting that the planets and the earth revolved around the sun. Johannes Kepler's desire for geometrical perfection drove his scientific ideas about planetary orbits. Galileo clearly recognized the value of experimentation (Franklin, Allison & Gorman 1996, p. 24).
The concept that the method of inquiry was the key to all knowledge was clarified by Francis Bacon, who formulated the logic of inductive reasoning to give scientists a systematic approach to follow. The first stage of Bacon's inductive investigation was methodical observation, which requires the investigator to create a diverse list of all positive instances of the phenomenon being studied. Next, the researcher identifies situations similar to those on the first list where the phenomenon is absent. Finally, the scientist generates a list of degrees in which instances are ordered according to the quantity and intensity of the phenomenon. In the second stage of scientific investigation, according to Bacon, one inductively generalizes from the data by locating substantive correlations — specifically by finding a cluster of properties that "is always present or absent with given nature and always increases and decreases with it" (Bacon 1939, p. 110).
Bacon was so confident that a set of properties meeting such established conditions caused the phenomenon in question that he declared, "the discovery of all causes and sciences would be but the work of a few years" (Bacon 1939, p. 75). Although Bacon's promise proved impossible to fulfill, his method did indeed become the model for the sciences. As Whitehead (1911, p. 157) noted, the scientist, when trying to explain the relationships among observed phenomena, systematically omits metaphysical explanations — that is, those that cannot be tested.
Thomas Hobbes furthered the ideas of Bacon by developing one of the first mechanistic accounts of human cognitive processes (Verberg 1969). He also sought empirical laws to explain the origins of society and government, grounding them in the premise that humans have a natural drive for survival.
It was René Descartes, however, who radically advanced the idea of scientific study by rejecting any idea that could not be proven with certainty (Franklin, Allison & Gorman 1996, pp. 25–26). He wrote, "We reject all such merely probable knowledge and make it a rule to trust only what is completely known and incapable of being doubted" (Descartes 1970, p. 3). In his commitment to rationalism, Descartes argued that everything is explainable through one overarching system of deductive reasoning. He modeled his approach on mathematics, reasoning that the mind could be trained to produce clear and consistent truths just as one can deduce theorems from axioms through formal proofs. This view stood in contrast to Bacon and Hobbes, who believed that experience was the basis of all learning.
Because Descartes' methodological rules were too strict for broad scientific application, John Locke argued instead that the mind was a clean slate upon which experiences left their mark (Franklin, Allison & Gorman 1996, p. 26). This theory of knowledge formed the foundation of scientific psychology, as Locke attempted to analyze the mechanisms of the mind. For instance, he hypothesized that all complex, abstract ideas were constructed from simple, concrete ideas produced through personal experience.
Isaac Newton combined all of these earlier philosophies into a single working theory. He recognized the importance of both the deductive, mathematical approach supported by scientists such as Descartes and the inductive experimental methodology championed by Bacon. Newton integrated his own observations and those of other scientists concerning the effect of gravity into a universal explanation expressed as a mathematical relationship (Mason & Bramble 1978, p. 2). Newton's remarkable successes in the physical sciences encouraged those working in the human sciences to follow suit.
"Goals of research and hypothesis testing"
"Step-by-step overview of scientific research procedure"
"Real study illustrating each methodological step"
The study also found that folates appear to have more impact on reducing Alzheimer's risk than vitamin E, a noted antioxidant, and other nutrients considered for their effect as brain-aging deterrents. (Supported hypothesis / reported findings)
Maria Corrada and Dr. Claudia Kawas of the University of California, Irvine, led the effort, which analyzed the diets of non-demented men and women aged 60 and older. (Design / methodology) They compared the food nutrient and supplement intake of those who later developed Alzheimer's disease to the intake of those who did not develop the disease. (Design / methodology)
The researchers used data from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging to identify the relationship between dietary factors and Alzheimer's disease risk. Between 1984 and 1991, study volunteers provided detailed dietary diaries — including supplement intake and calorie amounts — for a typical seven-day period. (Design / methodology)
Ultimately, 57 of the original 579 participants developed Alzheimer's disease. The researchers found that those with higher intake of folates, vitamin E, and vitamin B6 shared lower comparative rates of the disease. (Observations and data collection) When the three vitamins were analyzed together, only folates were associated with a significantly decreased risk. (Data analysis)
The scientific method is very closely related to science — the process of human inquiry that is a central feature of the modern world. Despite the fact that this method appears simple and logical in its description, one must clearly recognize the complexity involved in gaining new knowledge and producing learning that can be applied to other situations in the future.
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