Teaching English Reading Skills in Grades K–2

Introduction and Rationale for Explicit Instruction

There are four components of instruction in English language learning for children in the primary grades. The purpose of this paper is to discuss each of these components — phonemic awareness, phonics, spelling, and reading — and present learning activities suitable for kindergarten, first grade, and second grade. Some options for differentiation are provided to accommodate different ability levels and learning styles in the regular education classroom.

Rupley (2009) noted that a number of studies over the past seventy years underscore the important role played by the teacher in students' learning to read. That may seem obvious, but Rupley refers specifically to the benefits of direct and explicit instruction with respect to the components of language learning. Direct and explicit instruction is "active, reflective teaching in which the teacher recognizes that reading is an interactive process and that students can be effectively taught to become better readers" (Rupley, p. 120). In other words, it is not enough for teachers to provide reading materials and expect that students will develop the skills they need through exposure to books and worksheets. The teacher must be a thoughtful practitioner and take an active role in helping children build the foundations for learning to read.

For this paper, the general characteristics of the "typical" learner at each grade level, kindergarten through second grade, are discussed. Activities for each grade level are organized under each of the four components of instruction. Most of the activities can be adapted for all three grade levels. Depending on the student population, some activities appropriate for kindergarten students in one class, school, or district might be better suited to first graders in another location.

Developmental Characteristics by Grade Level

Kindergarten Students

Kindergarten students generally enter school at age five. Most kindergarten teachers will notice a disparity among students with respect to school readiness. One factor is chronological age; with students so young, even a few months can make a big difference. "Children move through two distinct developmental phases during the kindergarten year — one of caution, literalness, and general compliance; a second of experimentation, oppositional behavior, and uncertainty" (Wood, p. 42). A child closer to four years of age can thus be expected to behave differently than a kindergartener nearer to the age of six. Basic personality also makes a difference.

Kindergarten students come to school at different stages of readiness based upon family demographics. Students with older siblings have heard about school from their brothers and sisters and may have seen them reading and doing homework. These students may have a better idea of what school is "all about" compared to an only child or oldest child who does not have that same indirect experience. Children may also arrive at kindergarten with diverse preschool experiences. Some children will have spent their preschool years at home, cared for by a parent or grandparent, where pre-reading skills may or may not have been part of the day. Childcare facilities and preschools vary in the types of programs they deliver, which can further affect school readiness. Finally, the socioeconomic status of the family plays a role. Lloyd, Li, and Hertzman (2010) found in a longitudinal study of urban, disadvantaged children that a lack of early learning experiences negatively affected reading achievement in later grades. It is the task of the kindergarten teacher to reach all of these children in the teaching of reading.

Chip Wood (1994) wrote about the "typical" child for each age group in his book Yardsticks. He acknowledged that his discussions of each age group were "snapshots of development" (p. xix) but also explained that "children's growth and development follow reasonably predictable patterns" (p. 26). The activities for kindergarten students detailed in this paper reflect Wood's findings and are grounded in his recommendations. As Wood notes, learning is at its best for the five-year-old when it is both structured and exploratory — structured through a clear and predictable schedule, and exploratory through carefully constructed interest areas where children can initiate their own activity. The best teachers observe learning activities and create teacher-directed instruction to complement the children's interests and meet the learning expectations for the age (Wood, pp. 41–42).

First Graders

First graders generally enter at age six. Hopefully, kindergarten provided an opportunity for students to build reading readiness skills. Once again, the teacher will find some disparity in the classroom resulting from the same factors that characterized the kindergarten setting — chronological age, personality, inherent ability, socioeconomic status, and prior school experience. It is likely that many students attend first grade in the same school where they attended kindergarten; in such cases, students benefit from consistency in instructional materials and methods. Kindergarten is not mandatory in all states, and even within states there are both full- and part-time kindergarten programs. A child who has not attended kindergarten at all, or who attended a different school, may be at a disadvantage — though not necessarily. The first-grade teacher must address various abilities, learning styles, and differences in prior school experience when teaching reading skills.

Wood (1994) describes the six-year-old in ways that have direct implications for instruction:

"Six is an age of dramatic physical, cognitive, and social change… [Children] love to do their assignments, but are decidedly more interested in the process than in the product… Children delight in cooperative projects, activities and tasks… A teacher's words, tone, and body language all have great effect on six-year-olds… In many ways this is a key moment, a turning point, an open door. At six, the child is extremely open, receptive to all new learning. The eagerness, curiosity, imagination, drive and enthusiasm of the six-year-old is perhaps never again matched in quantity or intensity during the life span" (Wood, pp. 59–61).

Second Graders

Children are generally seven years old when they enter the second-grade classroom. Those who attend the same school for kindergarten and first grade come to second grade with an understanding of school culture, classroom procedures, and common vocabulary from commercially prepared curriculum materials such as basal readers, phonics programs, and math programs. Wood (1994) characterizes seven-year-olds in the following ways:

"Sevens are hard workers and often perfectionists… [They] love the routine and structure of school and appreciate their personal relationship with the teacher… [They] are good listeners and still enjoy being read a story. They show great interest in new words… They like working and talking with one other person (in board and card games, on puzzles) but don't always do well on group projects" (pp. 71–72).

Phonemic Awareness: Concepts and Activities

Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. Before children can learn to read, they must understand that words are made up of sounds and how those sounds work within words (Write-Express, 2010). A child's level of phonemic awareness upon entering school is widely considered the strongest single determinant of the success he or she will experience in learning to read — or, conversely, the likelihood of reading failure (Adams, 1990; Stanovich, 1986, in Adams, Foorman, Lundberg, & Beeler, 1998). Research clearly shows that phonemic awareness can be developed through instruction, and that doing so significantly accelerates children's subsequent reading and writing achievement (Ball & Blachman, 1991; Blachman, Ball, Black, & Tangel, 1994; Bradley & Bryant, 1983; Byrne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1991, 1993, 1995; Castle, Riach, & Nicholson, 1994; Cunningham, 1990; Lundberg et al., 1988; Wallach & Wallach, 1979; Williams, 1980, in Adams et al.). Ukrainetz, Ross, and Harm (2009) reported that regularly scheduled classroom instruction specifically focused on phonemic awareness benefited at-risk kindergarten students as much as — and in some cases slightly more than — pull-out instruction. Research indicates that, without direct instructional support, phonemic awareness eludes roughly 25% of middle-class first graders and substantially more of those who come from less literacy-rich backgrounds (Adams et al.).

TEAMS Educational Resources developed general guidelines for levels of phonemic awareness. Preschoolers ages three and four are usually able to identify words that rhyme. Four- and five-year-olds (a group that includes kindergarteners) realize that words are made up of syllables; they can clap their hands and count the "word parts" they hear. Six-year-olds (usually first grade) understand onsets (beginning sounds) and rimes (roots of word families) and can make substitutions. For example, they will understand a word puzzle such as "What rhymes with /at/ and begins with /f/?" Six-year-olds can usually isolate beginning, middle, and ending sounds and blend them — for example, stretching out the sounds /c/, /a/, /t/, then putting them together to say "cat." Second graders, and some first graders, can count the number of sounds they hear in a word as well as identify the sounds themselves. They can break the word "man" into its component sounds /m/-/a/-/n/. Second graders can also substitute phonemes to make new words — for example, figuring out what new word would result from taking the /t/ out of "stand" (sand) (TEAMS, n.d.).

Phonemic Awareness Activities for Kindergarten

The National Institute for Literacy (2010) suggests simple word games for kindergarten students that can be incorporated into circle time or whole-group reading instruction. For differentiation, the teacher can use different word sets during small-group instruction. These word games can include phoneme isolation ("What's the first sound you hear in 'cat'?"), phoneme identity ("Which sound is the same in 'man,' 'mitt,' and 'mess'?"), and phoneme categorization ("Which word doesn't belong — 'fan,' 'fat,' 'tap'?").

Kindergarten students enjoy rhyming activities. A good circle-time activity is a simple game in which children give a thumbs-up or thumbs-down to indicate whether a pair of words rhymes. For most kindergarten students, it is best if the words are spoken aloud. Picture cards or picture-word cards could be added, but those materials may also be more appropriate for first or second graders.

Kindergarten students would also enjoy a clapping and snapping game. The movement makes this activity especially engaging for five- and six-year-olds. The teacher demonstrates the movements — clap, clap, snap — and students follow along while repeating rhyming words. For example: "Clap, clap, snap, fall. Clap, clap, snap, ball." A variation has the teacher provide the first word while students supply the rhyming word. This game works well as a morning meeting activity and can also be used during reading instruction or in small groups. The teacher can differentiate by selecting words of varying difficulty.

Another engaging activity has students walk in a large circle, taking one step each time the teacher says a rhyming word. When the teacher says a word that does not rhyme, the children sit down. Because children are only hearing the words in this activity, they will not be confused by seeing rhyming words that are spelled differently (e.g., flea, spree, key, me) (Patti's Activities, n.d.).

Phonemic Awareness Activities for First Grade

Color CVC (consonant-vowel-consonant) word-picture cards can be used with first graders in several ways. The teacher can have students identify the beginning, middle, and ending sounds in each word, isolate those sounds, and then blend them together to say the word. Students can also identify rhyming pairs. The cards are suitable for small-group or whole-class instruction during reading lessons, and multiple sets can be placed in centers for partner or small-group practice.

Phonemic Awareness Activities for Second Grade

In the second-grade classroom, CVC word-picture cards can be used as described above for review and practice. Students can also sort the word cards by beginning, middle, and ending sounds. As with younger students, second graders benefit from the physical engagement of reaching for and manipulating the cards, and the teacher can use them with a pocket chart for small or whole-group instruction.

Second graders also enjoy the clapping and movement activities used in earlier grades. The teacher can review previously introduced words and add new ones, especially words with beginning and/or ending blends (e.g., clip, mask, stamp). Students can participate in a movement activity in which they perform one action when they hear a target sound at the beginning of a word and a different action when they hear it at the end. For example, children might hop on one foot when they hear /k/ at the beginning of a word and wave their arms when they hear /k/ at the end.

Second graders can also "air write" the beginning or ending letter they hear when the teacher says a word aloud. Like the other activities described here, air writing can be done during whole-group or small-group instruction and requires very little preparation. A teacher could even incorporate word games while students are lining up for lunch or recess.

For a more elaborate activity, the teacher can fill a bag with small objects. A student pulls an object from the bag, identifies it, and then — with the help of classmates — names other words that share the same beginning or ending sound.

Conclusion

In addition to the activities discussed in this paper, there is an ever-growing number of web-based activities that teachers can use in the classroom to teach and develop language skills. Many of these activities are free and are posted by teachers who have used them successfully in their own classrooms. The activities described here provide a starting point. It is important that teachers use a variety of activities to engage students and differentiate instruction so that all learners can achieve to the best of their abilities.

References

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