Urban Planning and Historic Preservation of Landmarks

Introduction: Preservation and Urban Development

In recent years, the preservation of history has continued to develop and, some say, has matured. Historic preservation now assumes a real role in how property development takes place in communities throughout the country. The National Historic Preservation Act and other preservation statutes have a strong impact not only on how the government deals with its own undertakings, but also on how elected officials license and fund projects and planning by private, state, and local organizations. Recently, several research studies have addressed examples of notable preservation and their success, including work by the leading urban market analyst Edward Glaeser and by the architect Rem Koolhaas. Glaeser is an economist who specializes in urban development. While he concedes that preservation has value, he argues in his book Triumph of the City and in a recent article, "Preservation Follies," that landmark preservation may limit improvement, raise costs, and undermine the basic identity of urban communities (Byrne, 2012).

Glaeser suggests that urban high-rise density permits a greater number of individuals from diverse economic backgrounds to reside in attractive urban areas. In his view, urban areas flourish when they have numerous small firms and talented citizen artisans. Glaeser frequently expresses concern that land use regulations limit new development, raise housing costs, and exclude lower-income individuals. He points out that one key aspect of development restriction is that regions subject to historical preservation regulations tend to become more expensive as well as more exclusive. The fundamental economics of housing planning are essentially those of simple supply and demand. Although Glaeser writes admiringly about New York City, his prime example of optimized historical regulation is Houston, Texas (Birmingham, 2010).

A fundamental concern is how historic preservation can retain historical value without placing undue burdens upon any socioeconomic group — for instance, by allowing "gentrification" to force out long-time, and possibly low-income, residents. Legal frameworks concerning historical preservation seek to strike a balance between the rights of the property or land owner and those of the general public, and in some cases the broader public interest in preserving history. Renowned urban areas where historical preservation is prominent include, for example, the city of Charleston, South Carolina. Certain areas of Charleston have very strict codes governing details as specific as the color and type of paint homeowners may use. While seemingly restrictive in nature, these regulations have led to considerable growth in the area, including a thriving tourist population drawn to the historically preserved environment. Legal provisions such as the Fifth Amendment Takings Clause assist homeowners and property owners with "just" compensation, so that the burden of complying with historical development rules and policies is not wholly borne by the owner when there is a significant element of public good involved.

During the last century and earlier, United States law was slow to regulate historical assets. However, initial efforts did lead to the creation of the immense and remarkable national park system, which includes predominantly areas open to full public access. In terms of preservation of historic buildings, that effort was, by contrast, predominantly undertaken by private individuals (Rice, 2013).

The researcher Rudy Koshar has focused on issues of historical preservation in Germany, scrutinizing how preservation does or does not relate to national and ethnic identity (Frenkel, 2004). It is possible to recognize that a monument may be worthy of preservation and yet not necessarily be representative of the broader "national group." Preservation is understood as simultaneously safeguarding that which is historically relevant and that which offers an understanding of a particular historical era and its people. Considerable theoretical discussion has focused on how some "national landmarks" are not actually representative of any given national character; perspectives drawing on post-structuralist artistic theory and social studies have featured among many elaborate scholarly expositions (James, 2009).

European Influences and Post-War Urban Planning

During the 1960s and 1970s, European planners began to develop aspects of modern building design and spatial arrangements, focusing also on the interrelationships between prime urban real estate and the socioeconomic and sociopolitical environments. Often, the primary leaders of urban development in this era — from government officials to urban planners and engineers — were those who had witnessed the devastation of cities following the Second World War. These architects, engineers, city officials, and urban planners were at a peak of their influence (Dennis, 2011). This era generally had two simultaneous perspectives: from one standpoint, the stark and unprecedented citywide devastation offered an opportunity for sweeping change; from another, it demanded careful consideration of historicity and the need to preserve buildings of significant historical value.

Various nations have implemented urban development management and open space preservation strategies. The objectives of such arrangements most commonly include: (a) ensuring that open space, natural green zones, and farmland are not absorbed by development; (b) avoiding low-density urban sprawl in suburban areas; (c) expanding the use of publicly available transportation; and (d) advancing conservative, planned development (Frenkel, 2004; Ingram et al., 2009). While the objectives of these approaches are frequently comparable, their methods of implementation vary considerably across time and location, as the unique financial, political, and ecological conditions of each environment call for tailored strategies capable of achieving those goals.

Ingram et al. (2009) used performance indicators to evaluate five important developmental objectives across eight U.S. states over one decade. Their methods, ranging from descriptive measurements to statistical models, were shaped by the availability of data from the U.S. Census Bureau. Ingram et al. (2009) found that no single state performed well across all five measures; however, some were successful in their fundamental planning and long-term goals. These authors ultimately concluded that rational development is in fact achievable.

The significant effects of urban sprawl and approaches to addressing this issue clearly demonstrate the importance of adequate strategies for city planning. A thorough evaluation of urban development planning requires both qualitative and quantitative examination methods. Various studies recommend that planning focus on areas with high population densities; without such planning, development is likely to expand in unintended ways beyond the boundaries of urban areas, as has occurred in Portland, Oregon.

Legal Frameworks and Historic Preservation Policy

It may be a valid point to ask where the line falls between "protection" and "restoration." It is not yet possible to place glass or plastic domes over large buildings — time and the elements only accelerate decay without serious efforts being made to protect them. Some scholars revisit the philosophy of William Morris when examining attempts to preserve an entire city center, especially when it has become a destination for tourists and social activity — an outcome that may run contrary to Morris's (and SPAB's) original intent (Nelson & Moore, 1993; Han et al., 2009). Through extensive national planning, as exemplified by the National Outline Plan for Construction, Development, and Conservation (NOP 35), it is possible to accommodate a diversity of uses within a highly constrained area. NOP 35 includes the classification of landscapes, providing for the preservation of rural areas and existing open spaces as well as the development of new green corridors. This type of planning simultaneously identifies and preserves areas of cultural value while permitting urban development in areas that do not require such preservation. This is accomplished by continuing to build and develop where development already exists, while avoiding undisturbed areas and refraining from developing land of historic and cultural importance.

The Society for the Preservation of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) was founded by the notable artist and writer William Morris. In their 1877 Manifesto, they stated that if an ancient building cannot be used without modification, it should be taken out of use and preserved, as far as possible, exactly as it stands. In particular, they opposed what they called "restoration," seeking instead "to put protection in place of restoration."

Conclusion

The topic of urban planning and historic preservation of landmarks encompasses a wide diversity of opinions. There are those who wish to wholly preserve whatever historic landmarks exist; among them, the strictness of the definition of "historicity" varies, as does the latitude permitted in terms of protection and preservation. Others simultaneously wish to preserve and protect, but not at the cost of excluding a living, viable population — so that an area does not devolve into a historical attraction for tourists, with no actual present use beyond gift shops and cafes. To some extent, however, appropriate planning for urban development is possible, allowing for the retention of both historical zones and environmental green zones. Green zones are increasingly shown to be not only attractive but also economically beneficial, functioning as lesser heat sinks and reducing costs. All in all, the future potential is positive as more individuals come to value the utility of preserving historic areas while simultaneously planning responsibly for the future.

References

Aiden While. 2006. "Modernism vs. Urban Renaissance: Negotiating Post-war Heritage in English City Centres." Urban Studies, Vol. 43, No. 13, 2399–2419, December 2006.

Birmingham, Rebecca. 2010. "Smash Or Save: The New York City Landmarks Preservation Act And New Challenges To Historic Preservation." Journal of Law and Policy 19, 271. LexisNexis Academic: Law Reviews, EBSCOhost.

Byrne, J. Peter. "Historic Preservation And Its Cultured Despisers: Reflections On The Contemporary Role Of Preservation Law In Urban Development." George Mason Law Review 19, (April 1, 2012): 665. LexisNexis Academic: Law Reviews, EBSCOhost.

Dennis, Rodwell. "Urban Conservation in the 1960s and 1970s: A European Overview." Architectural Heritage XXI (2010): 1–18. Edinburgh University Press. DOI: 10.3366/arch.2011.000.

Frenkel, Ammon, and Daniel E. Orenstein. 2012. "Can Urban Growth Management Work In An Era Of Political And Economic Change?" Journal of the American Planning Association 78 (1): 16–33. doi:10.1080/01944363.2011.643533.

James, Jason. "Retrieving a Redemptive Past: Protecting Heritage and Heimat in East German Cities." German Politics & Society 27, no. 3 (September 2009): 1–27. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost.

Rice, Robin D. "By What We Have Destroyed: Historic Preservation And The Preservation Of Individual Property Rights." University of Louisville Law Review 52, no. 1 (Fall 2013): 153–197. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost.

SPAB. "The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings."