Child Advocacy: History, Ethics, and NOHSE Standards

Introduction to Child Advocacy

There have been widespread writings regarding the promotion of children's rights to support their well-being, development, and capacity to realize maximum potential ever since the 1960s (Bruyere, 2010). It is a common human dignity value that people possess indisputable rights. An important issue in child activism, however, is establishing the best extension of rights to children in the context of their need for utmost protection — partly because children do not yet possess the full range of basic rights, and partly because they may lack the competency to make the best decisions in their own interest. There is, therefore, considerable debate concerning suitable protections for children, how far a state should or can go in ensuring these rights are granted, and who is best positioned to make certain decisions regarding the best interest of children when guardians or parents are not capable of doing so (Cascardi, Brown, & Shpiegel, 2015).

Politicians, experts, and parents have come together over the years to support the rights of children. Support can occur collectively, individually, or through a combination of both. Even though various advocacy efforts tend to be more effective than others, it is the people behind the advocacy and the process involved that matter most. Professionals in early childhood often encounter issues that relate to young children and households. Unlike remaining silent when confronted with injustices, advocates challenge the status quo — they are risk-takers. An individual who advocates is considerably different from someone who remains silent and follows the "road of least conflict." Advocacy means explaining or illustrating something you are knowledgeable about to another person in order to improve the quality of life of others (Royea & Appl, 2009).

This paper discusses the notion of child advocacy, the NOHSE standards linked to it, the historical outlook on federal laws connected to child advocacy, and client confidentiality as well as the ethical responsibilities linked to this profession.

The Role of Child Advocates

Child advocacy refers to any joint or individual action that aims to improve the lives and well-being of children. In certain cases, professionals might feel that their employers are somewhat limiting their advocacy efforts. Advocacy is, however, considered a professional responsibility (Royea & Appl, 2009).

In recent years, child advocacy has emerged as an important area of study. Even though child advocacy strives to promote the well-being of children across different life arenas, in practice it is most commonly associated with safeguarding children from danger (see, for example, Melton, 2011; Myers, 2008; Winter, 2011). To illustrate this point, requesting a child advocacy text from a textbook publisher typically yields recommendations for child maltreatment books. Similarly, library searches on the topic of child advocacy predominantly return papers on the different types of child maltreatment, drawing on various disciplinary perspectives (e.g., public policy, law, psychology, social work). Safeguarding children from danger is an essentially moral and ethical duty; protection should nonetheless also be understood within the framework of children's natural personhood rights. Although other texts on the significance of children's rights exist, rights of participation are often seen as conflicting with children's need for safety. An integrated perception of protection and rights continues to grow. Assumptions, values, and ideologies regarding the best interest of children have also considerably shaped child advocacy (Cascardi et al., 2015). A child advocate assists with the psychological and social welfare of children and their families. Cases of abuse and neglect are normally assigned to them by the criminal justice system. They work together with the courts and authorities to ensure that the child receives the best possible care.

Child advocates normally work with children within the juvenile criminal justice system. They are typically chosen to work with children who are victims of neglect and abuse. They investigate cases, report their findings to the court or relevant authorities, and address legal matters that may arise concerning child custody or abuse. Additionally, they offer counseling to the child and their family and arrange for supportive services. Child advocates must possess strong problem-solving, organizational, and communication skills, and must be able to empathize with all their clients. They may also assist with foster care and adoption, as well as work to reduce physical and psychological health risks. In the long run, their efforts may improve a child's school performance and reduce school dropout rates.

Thesis: The absence of referrals to support and therapeutic services, possibly traumatic and procedurally flawed investigation practices, and disagreements among the different legislative bodies involved are thought to contribute to low abuse conviction rates and poor outcomes for affected children.

NOHSE and Its Ethical Standards

The National Organization for Human Service Education (NOHSE) is an umbrella organization formed to unite practitioners, clients, students, and educators. It was established in 1975 during the 5th Annual Faculty Development Conference of the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB), with original support from the National Institute of Mental Health. NOHSE perceives human service education as interdisciplinary and takes the position that its workers should be greatly concerned with client issues, help clients meet basic needs, and advocate for systemic changes that affect clients' lives.

NOHSE serves several key purposes:

1) To offer a medium of cooperation among human service organizations as well as faculty, students, and practitioners.
2) To encourage, assist, and support national, state, and local human service organizations.
3) To fund publications, institutes, and conferences that promote creative approaches to human service education and delivery.
4) To promote excellence in research and teaching for the improvement of education among those who provide human services.

According to NOHSE, its members come from varied professional and educational backgrounds, including mental health, addictions, social services, gerontology, recreation, human service resource management, child care, and developmental disabilities (Rosenthal, 2003).

According to NOHSE's Ethical Standards of Human Service Professionals (2000), human service professionals are expected to advocate for and support their clients. These standards make clear that professionals need to advocate when statutes and regulations are inconsistent with client rights (Statement 10), and when unmet community and client needs exist (Statement 13). Professionals are given a broad mandate to engage in advocacy as per Statement 16, which states that human service professionals should advocate for every member of society, especially those belonging to minority groups and groups that have directly encountered discriminatory practices.

Historical Perspective on Federal Laws Relating to Child Advocacy

In general, child advocacy is considered to have emerged alongside the rise of childhood as a distinct and socially constructed stage of life during the Romantic and Enlightenment periods. During these eras, the philosophical influences of autonomy and paternalism exerted considerable influence on views regarding the role of government in society. Paternalism refers to the notion that the state has a responsibility to protect its people and decide what is best for them with minimal regard for individual autonomy or preferences (Feinberg, 1971). This idea is applied to children, who are perceived as defenseless, vulnerable, and lacking the capacity for full autonomy. In policy terms, paternalism is translated into public institutions — such as child welfare agencies — and social institutions — such as the family — safeguarding children from danger (Myers, 2008). During the 20th century, public resource allocation and public policy discussions focused primarily on the protection of children, as reflected in a paternalistic belief system. The most influential child-saving developments in America were perhaps the intervention in cases of neglect and abuse and the formation of the Juvenile Justice System to rehabilitate and protect delinquent youth (Myers, 2008).

The well-known case of Mary Ellen Wilson is credited with starting the American child protection movement in the late 1800s. This case inspired the creation of the first children's protection body, which fought against all forms of cruelty and exploitation of children. A century later, the American federal government enacted the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) of 1974, which established minimum standards for the prevention and treatment of child maltreatment and authorized states to intervene in cases of child neglect and abuse. Agencies soon became overwhelmed by the growing demand for child abuse services and investigations, and caseworker preparation was insufficient to address the complex needs of the children and families requiring intervention. Numerous high-profile failures to protect children in state custody led advocacy groups to file class-action complaints against various child welfare agencies. Between 1995 and 2005, 32 states faced such complaints, which resulted in settlement agreements requiring improvements to professional development. Other federal statutes also incorporated directives to improve training for child welfare professionals — for instance, the Deficit Reduction Act (2005), the Child and Family Services Improvement Act (2006), and the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act (2003), a CAPTA amendment.

Legal directives arising from federal law, settlement agreements, and class-action complaints spurred the development of educational programs — particularly in higher education — to train child welfare professionals. For example, beginning in 1999, Montclair State University in New Jersey trained numerous child welfare personnel in a revised or new case practice model prior to their assumption of fieldwork and supervisory responsibilities. A similar initiative was launched at Winona State University in Minnesota, which emphasized multidisciplinary cooperation both across and within the service delivery systems responsible for serving and protecting maltreated children. From the late 1990s onward, the number of university-based child advocacy programs in the United States grew rapidly, with over 40 programs established in 27 different states. These programs concentrated on child abuse and reflected the broader public policy focus on protection. At the same time, scholarship on child maltreatment substantially increased, concentrating on identifying cases of neglect and abuse and improving understanding of their prevention, etiology, and prevalence. All of these efforts resulted in the recognition of child advocacy as a distinct area of study, with a primary focus on child maltreatment (Cascardi et al., 2015).

Conclusion

Child advocacy has become a well-organized political and social movement that is helping governments across the world make better decisions regarding children's welfare. Over the last couple of decades, the nature of child advocacy has changed significantly — from a mere grassroots movement to a discipline studied in universities and institutes around the globe. Child advocacy is fundamentally about supporting children's dignity in the delivery of services within public systems (e.g., juvenile justice, mental health, and education), as well as in law and policy. It is crucial to recognize that child advocacy regards both the rights and the protection of children as essential to their healthy development. Children should not be burdened with responsibilities beyond their developmental capacity, even if they can physically manage them. They should only be engaged in activities and decisions appropriate to their level of maturity. This principle is upheld by science, modern societal standards, and prevailing beliefs and values. Child advocates must continue to push for these and other pro-children services and policies to be made available to children across the country and around the world (Cascardi et al., 2015).

References

Cascardi, M., Brown, C., & Shpiegel, S. (2015). Where have we been and where are we going? A conceptual framework for child advocacy. SAGE. Retrieved from

Ezell, M. (2013). Advocacy in the human services. USA: Cengage Learning.

Feinberg, J. (1971). Legal paternalism. Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 1, 105–124.

Melton, G. B. (2011). Young children's rights. Encyclopedia of Early Childhood Development. Retrieved from http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/en-ca/home.html

Myers, J. E. B. (2008). A short history of child protection in America. Family Law Quarterly, 42, 449–463.

Rosenthal, H. (2003). Human Services Dictionary. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.

Royea, A. J., & Appl, D. (2009). Every voice matters: The importance of advocacy. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37, 89–91. Retrieved from

Schenk, K., & Williamson, J. (2005). Ethical approaches to gathering information from children and adolescents in international settings: Guidelines and resources. USA: The Population Council Inc.

Sexual Assault Task Force. (2016). Confidentiality and privilege. Retrieved from http://oregonsatf.org

Winter, K. (2011). The UNCRC and social workers' relationships with young children. Child Abuse Review, 20, 395–406.