Ethics and Best Practices in Psychological Testing

Introduction to Reliability, Validity, and Testing Principles

Common errors made in the administration, scoring, and interpretation of psychological tests depend upon adherence to reliable practices and established guides. The concepts of reliability and validity are situated within the framework of the tests themselves, supporting the field of psychological testing with data drawn from participants. These tests are constructed using core principles such as standardization, objectivity, test norms, reliability, and validity. In terms of reliability, these tests have been shown to yield consistent findings across multiple administrations. In terms of validity, they have demonstrated that they genuinely measure what they set out to assess—making them effective measurement tools (Schultz, 2010). Reliability can be compared to validity in the sense that both are assessed by a degree of consistency, yet they differ in that reliability concerns consistency over time while validity concerns accuracy of measurement. The former is historically a suitable indicator when proper conditions are met, while the latter must be demonstrated as actually capable of measuring what is being tested.

The fundamental questions regarding psychological testing refer to the interpretive scores these tests produce, which may be open to interpretation based on personal history, context, scoring curves, and other factors (Gregory, 2013). Because these interpretations can also depend on the type of framework used to code responses, questions regarding reliability and validity can become controversial or disputed if certain criteria are not met or followed precisely. Psychological testing requires a high degree of human involvement in both the administration of the test and the interpretation of results, which means there is always some possibility that an error can occur. Thus, the extent to which psychological testing is effective can be understood and evaluated in many different ways.

APA Ethical Principles in Test Administration and Interpretation

APA ethical principles that are directly related to the administration, scoring, and interpretation of psychological tests are grounded in truthfulness in reporting and assessing. Psychological testing encompasses the instruments used to measure individual behavior through a standardized set of questions. Tests range in focus from measuring aptitude, emotional development, and personality to cognition and beyond (Anastasi & Urbina, 2007). The term test refers to the instrument used to measure latent variables that an individual possesses but that would otherwise go unnoticed or unknown—just as a ruler gives a measurer a sense of distance, the test gives the measurer a sense of what lies beneath the surface. If the assessor does not report or assess accurately, or does so in a way that intentionally misleads others as to the actual psychological state of the patient, this constitutes unethical behavior with profound impacts on the patient, society, and the field of psychology. Honesty and integrity in reporting and assessing are therefore essential.

Additionally, only applicable assessments should be conducted. For instance, if a person shows signs of depression, the appropriate assessment for that condition should be used. If a person shows signs of OCD, the correct instrument should be applied. Conducting unnecessary assessments can violate ethical principles grounded in the principle of utility.

APA ethical principles that are indirectly related to test administration, scoring, and interpretation include the requirement to act only within one's degree of competency. Specifically, practitioners should "provide services, teach and conduct research with populations and in areas only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, consultation, study or professional experience" (APA, 2010, s.2.01). This principle ensures that psychologists do not perform assessments they are not qualified to perform.

Further indirect ethical considerations concern gaining informed consent from the patient before assessment, "except when (1) testing is mandated by law or governmental regulations; (2) informed consent is implied because testing is conducted as a routine educational, institutional or organizational activity (e.g., when participants voluntarily agree to assessment when applying for a job); or (3) one purpose of the testing is to evaluate decisional capacity" (APA, 2010, s.9.03). The purpose of informed consent is to explain the nature of the assessment, its aim, its cost, and which third parties may have access to it and to what degree confidentiality applies. This gives the patient an opportunity to ask questions and express concerns. These principles apply whenever a test does not fall under any of the three exceptions listed above, guiding psychologists in how to conduct assessments with respect for the patient's rights.

Minimizing Testing Errors Across Major Test Categories

The steps that can be taken to minimize testing errors—so that they do not violate APA principles—begin with understanding the major categories of psychological tests. These categories can be divided as follows:

IQ tests are designed to measure intellectual capacity and are typically used in schools and by individuals interested in gauging their intellectual level. Attitude tests are designed to measure personal feelings or emotions regarding a specific subject, commonly measured using the Likert scale—a simple 1-to-5 numeric range of choices from one extreme (not at all) to the other (very much). These may be conducted in clinical settings or used by individuals for self-understanding. Personality tests provide an assessment of an individual's personality type; one traditional example is based on the four humors (sanguine, melancholy, etc.) and these are used by employers, educators, individuals, and clinicians alike. Neuropsychological tests are designed to assess cognitive processes and are typically used in clinical settings. Direct observation tests measure a dynamic—typically a family dynamic—such as a child's interaction with a parent. These constitute the major categories of psychological testing instruments.

Understanding the purpose and nature of these tests, and using them accordingly, is the first step toward minimizing testing errors. For example, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a standardized psychometric test used in psychology to gauge personality type and to assist with the diagnosis of personality disorders such as bipolar disorder, depression, and schizophrenia. It is also helpful in determining the type of treatment a patient would most benefit from (Butcher & Williams, 2009). Administering this test to someone who shows no signs of depression or bipolar disorder would be an unethical activity for a psychologist, as well as a waste of both the clinician's and patient's time. The next step is to ensure that data is recorded adequately and efficiently. The third step is to ensure that reliability and validity are upheld during the assessment and interpretation phases.