Globalization, Hybrid Cultures, and Modernity in Latin America

Introduction to Canclini's Hybrid Cultures Theory

Argentine scholar Néstor García Canclini, in his book Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity, presents a culture made up of surviving traditions and incoming modernity, particularly in Latin America, where he was born. Viewing this complex merger from a pluralistic perspective, he asserts that pluralism is indispensable in dealing with Latin America — that is, in considering its "contradictory and unequal components" of modernization, which are emancipation, expansion, renovation, and democratization (Canclini 1995).

In presenting the theoretical and practical challenges of a hybrid culture, Canclini asks: (1) how hybrid cultures constituting modernity can be studied and given a specific profile in Latin America; (2) how the partial knowledge of different disciplines on culture can be combined to better interpret the contradictions and failures of modernization; and (3) what should be done with the mix of "heterogeneous memory and truncated innovations." He writes of Latin America as "a more complex articulation of traditions and modernities, a heterogeneous continent," consisting of coexisting countries with multiple forms and levels of development.

In order to see through this heterogeneity, Canclini believes that the anti-evolutionist approach to postmodernism is useful and "more radical" than anything before it. This posture can break through and detect "fundamentalist pretensions of traditionalism, ethnicism, and nationalism." His book undertakes this work by reflecting on modernity and post-modernity in metropolitan countries and by examining the contradictions between autonomous societies and the industrialization of symbolic markets (Canclini). He then proposes how the links between modernism and modernization can be reinterpreted, based on recent historical and sociological research on Latin American cultures, and discusses the behavior of artists, middlemen, and the public toward innovation and democratization. This leads to Canclini's examination of hybrid cultures as generated or promoted by the new communication technologies.

Latin American Modernization and Cultural Inequality

The book centers on Latin America's economy and cultures, which are unique among other developing regions. Canclini maintains that social formation does not necessarily proceed from ancient to modern, or from inferior to superior. It was when Latin American countries attempted to modernize while simultaneously retaining their native cultures that inequalities evolved and were made legitimate.

He suggests that the central theme of cultural policies should be how to "construct societies with democratic projects shared by everyone without making everyone the same" (Canclini), where disintegration is elevated to diversity and inequalities are reduced to differences. His view notably opposes the position taken by cultural studies in Latin America, which held that the mass media were a huge threat to the region's popular traditions. Canclini maintains that the homogenization of Latin America's indigenous cultures began much earlier than radio and television. The process started with the onslaught of conquest and colonization — in the violent Christianization and introduction of other religions, when national states began forming, through the use of single languages in schools, and in the colonial or modern organization of urban space (Canclini).

Canclini suggests the use of combined anthropological and sociological methods in building an autonomous culture capable of surviving the challenges of the transnational market. He sees modernity as relative and doubtable, but not necessarily antagonistic to traditions, nor capable of overcoming them through any evolutionary law. A post-modern stance, he believes, will enable the handling of an impure merger of passing traditions and the disjointed and heterodox trends and accomplishments of modernity (Canclini).

Anthropological Perspectives on Hybridity and Identity

Anthropologist Adam Kuper advances the observation that postmodernism is relevant only within the confines of academia — mainly by university committees deciding matters of hiring and tenure — and not in the outside world of knowledge and understanding. He cautions that cultural diversity should not only be a reason for celebration, but also a cause for wariness toward negative and unintended consequences arising from attitudes about race and ethnicity. One must not forget the value of cultural universality and solidarity. While underprivileged minority groups may well politically identify with America, other societies with their own histories cannot do so without great risk of disaster to their own cultures.

Kuper illustrates this through the example of his native South Africa, where anthropological studies long engaged with the integrity of local cultures. In celebrating cultural identity, these anthropologists made the significant mistake of choosing to promote local Bantu culture rather than to produce "black Europeans" (Kuper 1999), which contributed to the official separation of white and black cultures.

Looking at the same Latin American cities, David Carrasco is convinced that we live in a world of competing cities (Harvard Magazine 2002), where the nature of urban hierarchies is partly to fill in all social and geographical space, expand their influence beyond their limits, and to acquire and absorb the productions, ideas, and technology of the outside world (Carrasco). He sees all modern cities as interconnected, so that what happens in one affects the others. Carrasco is described as the embodiment of the hybrid cultures that prevailed after the Spaniards invaded Mexico — a time when "biological, symbolic and social exchanges" occurred. As a historian deeply immersed in the study of Mesoamerican cultures, Carrasco produced a substantial body of work on the subject, consisting of more than 3,000 texts and 10,000 images. His knowledge traversed borders so broadly that his critics believed that, in his hands, ideas became living things.

The Internet as a Driver of Latin American Development

Canclini mentions the primary role of information and communication technology in generating and promoting hybrid cultures. Anthropologist Margaret Everett points to the internet — the newest information technology at the time of her writing — as critical in solving problems such as environmental destruction, disease, and authoritarianism (Everett 1999), and notes that while it may enhance economic competitiveness and political pluralism, it may also lead to a neglect of other basic issues in development. She conducted a study exploring the use of this new technology in Latin America, the subject of Canclini's broader inquiry.

Her study begins with the assumption that information is the key to renewed economic growth, along with new forms of political participation and community in American popular culture. It references the argument of some scholars that technology can contribute to the creation of hybrid cultures and "autonomous social expression," which comprises what William Birdsall called the "ideology of information technology." This argument holds that information and communication are key not only to development and economic growth, but also to new forms of democracy and freedom (Everett). Businesses support this argument by asserting the crucial role played by the internet in achieving competitiveness in global markets — to the point that governments herald the new technology as the path to modernization and national development. Activists, however, believe that the internet removes borders and challenges global political and economic barriers.

The fact is that Latin America is among the fastest-growing regions for internet adoption. There were 45,000 servers or host computers in Latin America as of the last count available. The sale of computers increased by 21% in 1995 alone. Brazil has one of the most extensive internet infrastructures in the region and claims extensive satellite access reaching the Amazon. Its internet market grew by 2,333% between January 1995 and January 1996, with commercial sites also growing by 1,073% in the same period. All Spanish-speaking countries in the region now have internet connections, with the number of connections doubling every 12 to 15 months.

Even skeptics have been amazed by the capabilities of this information access power. A single keyword search can bring up thousands of sites on almost any topic — food, travel, business, entertainment, and more. Web users can also choose the language of the material they seek. What was once confidential communication can now be accessed, viewed, and downloaded. What does this voyage through cyberspace mean to Latin America? Everett begins with Francisco Sagasti's notion of a "global fractured order" in evaluating the implications of the internet on the region.

Sagasti views the current age as characterized by a global but not integrated order. Through it, most people come into contact with one another while simultaneously maintaining differences between groups of countries. Meanwhile, a large portion of the world's population remains separated and deprived of the benefits gained by scientific advances and technological progress. Everett states that information does not always ensure progress, nor does integration assure equality. Dependency theorists of the 1960s supported the latter view, and development failures of the 1970s demonstrated the limits of attempted integration. Everett, along with others, believes that the aggressive development of technological infrastructure, training, and research in developing countries remains the only way to offset technological dependence on the internet. While the internet has grown quickly throughout Latin America, there have been corresponding limitations to its broad use and accessibility (Everett). Those most affected are often the very advocates of the internet's benefits who live in rural areas and smaller cities beyond capital boundaries — those who participate in social movements or receive assistance from development programs, and who are most marginal to the very process of social change they are supposed to be advancing. The more commercialized and concentrated internet growth in Latin America becomes, the worse the marginality and dependence of this population grows.

The height of enthusiasm for the internet has also raised computer sales and internet connectivity throughout Latin America. As more and more networks are established and connections are extended in Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Argentina, and elsewhere, many hail the internet as the "key to the future" and the very mark of modernity itself (Everett). The Red Científica Peruana declared that the current information explosion, globalization, and constant change are the keys to professional success. The internet's capacity for creating "virtual communities," among other features, has fired the enthusiasm of many.

Latin America is also drawn to the internet as a symbol of modernization and progress. Among other things, vendors in Lima can showcase their products to the world using only the internet, without leaving their places and despite limited access due to limited capital and licensing requirements. Another attraction is self-representation: Peru, for example, can use the internet as a window through which it can be seen by the world in ways not otherwise possible. Viewers from outside can link to other sites on Peruvian tourism, government, education, business, and entertainment — all at little or no cost.

The limits to Latin American nations' capacity to represent themselves in the world are not set by foreign governments, other agencies, or the media, but by the inherent capabilities of Latin Americans themselves. Most often projected are elements of cybertourism — through photos and music by the Red Científica Peruana (RCP), a very successful network in the region — rather than the social ills that plague the region and require urgent attention. The web is also used for self-identification through sites that include information on Latin American culture and discussions of current problems and threats. Unfortunately, such sites often use only Spanish and therefore cannot be accessed by those who do not speak the language. Nevertheless, they can serve as powerful forums for ethnic groups and special organizations through which legitimate concerns can be voiced.

Many in development and planning circles have been able to link information technology and "sustainable development" through the internet. An excellent example is the Sustainable Development Network Program of the United Nations Development Programme, which followed the 1992 Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro. The internet gave greater access to discussion and debate about issues surrounding sustainable development. As a consequence, this Network Program made a significant impact on land-use planning in Bolivia, educated lobbyists and government officials on environmental policy in Nicaragua, and facilitated the creation of African internet forums. The Program maintains that access to information — such as through the internet — facilitates greater local participation in planning and development, which it believes will lead to more effective and sustainable resource management.

Despite these and other demonstrable gains, inequalities still exist in the availability, quality, coherence, and accessibility of information between the developed and the developing world, according to the Network Program.

The integration-and-sustainable-development benefits of the internet are invoked by its supporters to justify its continued expansion (Everett). They claim that local populations are able to participate in deliberations where they can directly voice their concerns. However, accessibility limits to information technology undermine this claim. The promise that the internet will fundamentally benefit environmental protection and promote stewardship is similarly not guaranteed. The widespread distribution of information does not necessarily lead to fair and responsible management of resources. Agencies without clear knowledge of appropriate policies regarding who will access networks and how information will be used may even reverse any gains.