Juvenile Recidivism: Causes, Theories, and Rehabilitation

Introduction: What Makes a Juvenile Offend?

Juvenile offenders often commit crimes for a variety of reasons. The main timeframe during which juvenile offenders commit the majority of their crimes is in their late teenage years (ages 15 to 19), with the peak declining as they enter young adulthood (early 20s). Among Western populations, this age-crime bell-shaped curve is considered universal. When examining the nature of crimes committed, violent crimes occur later in youth compared to property crimes. Gender also plays a role, with the curve peaking sooner for girls than for boys. Minority young males often exhibit a wider and higher curve due to their exposure to crime and violence within the disadvantaged neighborhoods in which they grow up.

The environment of disadvantaged neighborhoods can be profoundly negative, with gang violence, assaults, and domestic problems prevalent among community members. Many researchers have noted the lack of stability in these areas as a main predictor for juvenile delinquency (Baglivio, Wolff, Piquero, & Epps, 2015). This is not to say that poverty or environment is the only reason juvenile offenders commit crimes. Some juvenile offenders commit crimes due to early exposure to drugs and alcohol (Baglivio, Wolff, Piquero, & Epps, 2015), and this reason may not depend on socioeconomic status — it can occur in any neighborhood.

Whatever the reason may be, juvenile offenders more likely than not stop offending after their transition into adulthood. However, research suggests that those who commit crimes early (before the age of 12) will most likely continue to offend as they become adults. Children who commit crimes at an early age may do so due to some form of abuse they endured when young (Chouhy, Cullen, & Unnever, 2014). While this is not the case for all juvenile offenders, abuse and an unstable home life may contribute to a higher occurrence of juvenile delinquency.

Another potential reason for juvenile delinquency is mental illness. Some youth suffer from depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders that increase the likelihood of juvenile delinquency (Chouhy, Cullen, & Unnever, 2014). Those who suffer from mental illness need assistance in building positive coping mechanisms that can help them avoid resorting to actions that lead to further criminal offense.

By becoming aware of the multiple reasons why juveniles offend, researchers and practitioners can develop a deeper understanding of what can be done to prevent juveniles from offending or reoffending. Strategies aimed at preventing juvenile delinquency must take into consideration the various hurdles youth face as they grow and transition into adulthood. These hurdles require new strategies that deliver better options for youth. From summer and afterschool programs to cognitive behavioral therapy, a multi-faceted approach is necessary to produce a long-lasting positive effect for any juvenile offender.

Causes for Juvenile Re-Offense

While juvenile delinquency has its causes, recidivism also has its own distinct reasons. Some of these causes are similar to those driving first-offense juvenile delinquency, while others stem from the structure of the criminal justice system and a lack of effective initiatives that provide support and options for juvenile offenders. Many juvenile offenders reoffend, with males reoffending more than females (Krohn & Lane, 2015). Among those who reoffend, the causes include substance abuse problems, mental health problems, household characteristics, academic performance, and an abusive family environment.

When considering structural problems, youth placed in the "persons in need of supervision" (PINS) category had lower recidivism rates than those classified as juvenile offenders or juvenile delinquents. Those charged with violent crimes had higher recidivism rates than those charged with nonviolent crimes (Krohn & Lane, 2015). Research suggests the three main causes of higher recidivism rates are age at discharge, criminal history, and community characteristics (Law & Quick, 2012).

Age can play an important role in recidivism. Earlier research noted that juvenile offenders who committed crimes before the age of 12 tend to reoffend. Other research suggests that committing crimes in the late teenage years could lead to higher rates of recidivism in the early twenties (Chouhy, Cullen, & Unnever, 2014). Regardless of the age at which a juvenile offender commits a crime, the nature of the crime can affect the risk of reoffending. A juvenile offender's criminal history reveals both the nature of the crimes committed and the number of offenses with which the court system charged the juvenile.

Some causes of recidivism, such as substance abuse and mental health problems, can result from community characteristics. Communities with higher rates of poverty, gang violence, and drug dealing create environments that may lead a juvenile offender to reoffend — particularly if the nature of the crime committed revolves around drugs or violence. In a 2012 study on factors for juvenile recidivism, offender type proved to be the factor with the greatest impact on recidivism rates: "Offender type was the only factor found to have a significant impact on recidivism with general and substance-involved offenders more likely to recidivate than sex offenders" (Calley, 2012, p. 257).

High recidivism rates may also be attributable to a lack of program continuity during the transition phase and inconsistency of approach among program staff (Liem, 2013). Although some programs show improvement among participants at some level, this improvement is typically only short-term. Rehabilitation programs aimed at reducing recidivism rates often fall short of their goals (Liem, 2013). This lack of success may be due to inadequate mental health services available to juvenile offenders. Mental health problems are a significant part of why juvenile offenders reoffend, and the promotion of effective coping mechanisms can enable a decrease in recidivism rates (Loeber & Farrington, 2012).

Mental Health Problems in Juvenile Offenders

The aim of the criminal justice system as it relates to juvenile offenders is rehabilitation. Rehabilitative efforts can be most effective with juveniles compared to adults. "According to Garascia (2005), the juvenile justice system was originally both a rehabilitative and preventative approach, emphasizing the needs and rights of children over the appeal to punish them" (Underwood & Washington, 2016, p. 228). However, as time passed, the aim to rehabilitate juvenile offenders decreased and shifted instead toward punitive efforts. "In 1960 approximately 1,100 delinquency cases were processed daily, while in 2009 juvenile courts handled about 4,000 delinquency cases daily, and in 2013, approximately 2,900 delinquency cases were processed daily...the number of delinquency cases increased 30% between 1985 and 2009" (Underwood & Washington, 2016, p. 228).

The shift toward punitive efforts has produced lackluster rehabilitative outcomes. This is an unfortunate development, as evidence indicates that many individuals in the juvenile justice system have mental health problems. "Estimates reveal approximately 50 to 75% of the 2 million youth encountering the juvenile justice system meet criteria for a mental health disorder. Approximately 40 to 80% of incarcerated juveniles have at least one diagnosable mental health disorder" (Underwood & Washington, 2016, p. 229). These figures are substantial and should be recognized as a potential driver of juvenile recidivism and recidivism into adulthood. These mental health problems range from depression to psychotic disorders and disruptive behavior disorders.

Understanding the link between youthful offending and mental health difficulties is critical when creating an appropriate treatment response. When mental health problems are addressed with effective strategies, this can have a direct and positive impact on juvenile recidivism (Mears et al., 2014). Effective coping mechanisms typically include self-awareness and self-monitoring techniques that provide a means by which youth can perform self-assessments of their thoughts and feelings — thoughts and feelings that often lead to negative behaviors and ultimately to recidivism. Another key aspect of effective coping is competency building (Vila-Ballo, Hdez-Lafuente, Rostan, Cunillera, & Rodriguez-Fornells, 2014).

When juvenile offenders learn skills that provide job opportunities and allow for better academic performance, recidivism rates decrease (Vila-Ballo et al., 2014). Competency building helps those with mental health problems develop the confidence and skills they need to pursue a productive adulthood. Many rehabilitative programs and treatment facilities do not take into consideration self-awareness cultivation and competency training. They fail to address why juveniles offend and what can be done to prevent recidivism. Instead, many of these programs focus on substance abuse and apply rehabilitative efforts through surveillance, deterrence, and discipline. Programs that aim to provide multiple coordinated services — including counseling, skill building, and case management — fare better at decreasing recidivism rates.