Paternal Absence and Sexual Risk Behavior in Adolescent Girls

Introduction

Adolescence is a period characterized by a high frequency of risk behaviors, many of which have negative outcomes (Brooks, 2007). The attitudes that adolescents hold regarding sexual behavior are likely to influence whether they engage in risky sexual activity. As Harris, Duncan, and Boisjoly (2002) note, "adolescents possess the cognitive abilities to formulate rational behavioral intentions based on perceived attitudes about the risk and benefits associated with engaging in such behavior" (p. 1010).

The purpose of this study is to ascertain whether father involvement positively affects sexual risk-taking behavior among adolescent females. The methodology is qualitative in nature and is accomplished through an extensive review of the literature in this field of study. The significance of the study lies in the knowledge it adds to this area of inquiry.

A father may be defined as an "involved father" if "his relationship with his child can be described as being sensitive, warm, close, friendly, supportive, intimate, nurturing, affectionate, encouraging, comforting and accepting" (Allen & Daly, 2007). Fathers may also be classified as involved "if their child has developed a strong, secure attachment to them" (Allen & Daly, 2007). There appears to be a well-supported perspective that views father involvement in the life of a child as integral to the child's development and behavioral outcomes, and the literature reviewed in this study supports that view.

Influence of Father Involvement on Child Development

Research on child development demonstrates that paternal involvement produces measurable benefits beginning in infancy and continuing through the school years.

Infants: Infants of highly involved fathers — as measured by amount of interaction, including higher levels of play and caregiving activities — are more cognitively competent at six months and score higher on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Pedersen, Rubinstein, & Yarrow, 1979; Pedersen, Anderson, & Kain, 1980; as cited in Allen & Daly, 2007).

One year of age: The cognitive advantage continues, with children of involved fathers showing higher cognitive functioning, better problem-solving ability as toddlers, and higher IQ scores by age three (Nugent, 1991; Easterbrooks & Goldberg, 1984; Yogman, Kindlon, & Earls, 1995; as cited in Allen & Daly, 2007).

School age: Children with involved fathers are better academic achievers, more likely to earn high grades, demonstrate stronger quantitative and verbal skills, earn higher grade point averages, and perform up to a year above their expected age level on academic tests. They are also more likely to live in cognitively stimulating homes (Bing, 1963; Goldstein, 1982; Radin, 1982; Astone & McLanahan, 1991; Blanchard & Biller, 1971; Cooksey & Fondell, 1996; National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; Snarey, 1993; as cited in Allen & Daly, 2007).

These children are also more likely to enjoy school, hold positive attitudes toward learning, participate in extracurricular activities, and graduate. They are less likely to fail a grade, have poor attendance, or exhibit behavior problems at school (Astone & McLanahan, 1991; Brown & Rise, 1991; Mosely & Thompson, 1995; National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; as cited in Allen & Daly, 2007).

Emotional and Social Development

Children of involved fathers are more likely to demonstrate a greater tolerance for stress and frustration, superior problem-solving and adaptive skills, and better ability to manage their emotions and impulses. They tend to be more playful, resourceful, skillful, and attentive when presented with a problem (Allen & Daly, 2007). They also demonstrate a greater internal locus of control, greater initiative, self-direction, and less impulsivity (Allen & Daly, 2007).

Young adults who had nurturing and available fathers while growing up are more likely to score high on measures of self-acceptance and personal and social adjustment. They are more likely to see themselves as dependable, trusting, practical, and friendly; to succeed in their work; and to be mentally healthy. As Allen and Daly (2007) note, "the variable that is most consistently associated with positive life outcomes is the quality of the father-child relationship. Children are better off when their relationship with their father is secure, supportive, reciprocal, sensitive, close, nurturing, and warm."

Father involvement is also positively correlated with children's overall social competence, maturity, and capacity for relatedness with others. Children of involved fathers are more likely to have positive peer relations and to be popular and well liked. Their peer relations are characterized by less negativity, less aggression, less conflict, more reciprocity, more generosity, and more positive friendship qualities (Allen & Daly, 2007).

Father Involvement and Female Adolescent Sexual Risk Behaviors

Several studies show that increased father involvement is associated with decreased delinquency and increased moral development in children. In a review of literature on paternal acceptance and rejection, Rohner and Veneziano (2001) found a significant body of research showing that father love is associated negatively with aggression, substance abuse, conduct problems, and delinquency in youth (Bean, 2006). Later research replicated these findings, further supporting the conclusion that positive father involvement is associated negatively with children making poor choices (Bean, 2006).

Pleck and Masciadrelli (2004) conducted a lengthy review of research on paternal involvement among U.S. fathers and concluded that "research which controls for mother involvement has shown a correlation between father involvement and adolescent psychological well-being and identity formation" (as cited in Bean, 2006). Research emphasizing the negative impacts of absent or poor father-role modeling also shows that "higher rates of delinquency, early sexual intercourse, and drinking along with reduced rates of school achievement and poor levels of well-being have been associated with diminished father involvement" (Bean, 2006).

Research comparing families where fathers are highly involved in child care to those where women are the primary nurturer shows that children in more father-involved families exhibit similar increases in psychological well-being and school achievement. Furthermore, "a lack of father involvement according to the societal prescription leads to increases in delinquency and risk-taking behaviors and an overall decline in mental health and well-being" (Pleck, 2003; as cited in Bean, 2006).

Harris, Furstenberg, and Marmer (1998) conducted a correlational analysis using data from a national survey of children to investigate the influence of fathers over children's life course. They found that children from families in which marital conflict and poverty were low and measures of father involvement and parental education were higher were generally more likely to have positive outcomes across the life course (Bean, 2006). These results have been replicated in other studies controlling for similar variables, demonstrating that father involvement and the associated improvement in adolescent outcomes are correlated with measures of improved marital relationships (Bean, 2006). Additionally, "a dramatic decline in the influence of father involvement has been shown to be correlated with fathers maintaining a residence other than that of their children" (Bean, 2006).

Research on developmental pathways of adolescent delinquency has been examined through both longitudinal research and meta-analyses, yielding numerous insights into key predictors of delinquent behavior. A number of studies have identified characteristic patterns of parent-child relationships strongly associated with juvenile delinquency (Juby & Farrington, 2001; Patterson & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984; Steinberg, 1987; as cited in Theoretical Models of Juvenile Delinquency, n.d.). A study by Shields and Clark (1995) collected data on 480 youths and their families and found that adolescents who rated family cohesion in the mid-range between "disconnected" and "enmeshed" reported the lowest rates of delinquent behavior. In contrast, adolescents reporting the highest rates of delinquency characterized their family cohesion as predominantly "disconnected," with very little involvement among family members and a large degree of personal separateness and independence.

Sensation seeking — defined as a personality tendency to seek strong sensations and experiences that entail various forms of risk — has received particular attention in research on adolescent risk behavior. Hansen and Breivik (2001) examined the relationship between sensation seeking and risk-taking behavior among 360 junior high school students, using Zuckerman's "My Opinion II" instrument. They found high correlations between sensation seeking and risk behaviors, with the majority of the sample endorsing more positive risk behaviors (such as high-risk sports) compared to negative ones (such as criminal activity and drug use).

Furman and Shaffer (2003) identified several developmental tasks faced by adolescents: (1) identity development; (2) the transformation of family relationships; (3) the development of close relationships with peers; (4) the development of sexuality; and (5) scholastic achievement and career planning. These tasks involve not only the individual but also the systems in which the individual exists, including the family, peer group, and school.

Brooks (2007) draws on Bronfenbrenner's ecological model (1979), which identified four system levels — the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem — all of which interact in a multi-directional manner. Bronfenbrenner held that development is most influenced from the outside in: that is, influence flows from the broader culture through the exosystem and mesosystem to the microsystem, or the developing person. Research from this ecological standpoint finds that "the principal main effects are likely to be interactions between systems" (Brooks, 2007, p. 10).

Within this framework, Rodgers (1995) found that parental monitoring, parental support, parental values, fathers' psychological control, and mothers' communication were significantly related to adolescent risk-taking behavior. Herring (1985) found that as perceptions of family cohesion increased, positive increases were noted in more conservative sexual values and attitudes. Brooks (2007) concludes: "In particular, the role of a father figure seems pivotal in influencing teen girls' engagement in sexual behavior" (p. 45).

A meta-analysis by Blum and Mmari (2005) of the developing-country literature found that of sixteen studies examining the association between family structure and adolescent sexual experience, nine found that adolescents living with both parents were less likely to engage in sex than those living with one parent or with someone other than their biological parent. Two studies specifically measured whether the biological father was present in the home and found that among females, the presence of a father during childhood and adolescence was independently associated with a later sexual debut (as cited in Brooks, 2007).

Ellis and colleagues (2003) investigated the effect of father absence on early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy in longitudinal studies conducted over five years in the United States and New Zealand. After controlling for covariates such as externalizing behavior problems, mothers' age at first birth, race, socioeconomic status, and parental monitoring, "there was stronger and more consistent evidence for effects of fathers' absence on early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy than on other behavioral problems" (Ellis et al., 2003; as cited in Brooks, 2007). Rodgers' (1995) dissertation further found that fathers' psychological control predicted the likelihood of sexual risk-taking among adolescent females. Lonning's (1993) dissertation investigated the strength of father-daughter relationships and their impact on the sexual activity of nearly 200 female subjects, finding a significant relationship between father-daughter relationships and the onset of consensual sexual intercourse (Brooks, 2007, p. 47).

A 2005 report published by the Institute for Youth Development, drawing on new analyses of the Add Health study — the largest study of adolescent behavior ever conducted — found that family involvement, connectedness to adults, parental expectations, and certain parental behaviors can outweigh negative factors that put youth at risk. Kathleen Mullan Harris, Ph.D., reported that "both the degree of father involvement and certain parenting behaviors are associated with decreases in violence, substance abuse, delinquency, and sexual intercourse." Harris found a direct correlation between decreased risk behavior and increased father involvement, regardless of family structure. She examined three distinct areas of parenting behavior: (1) monitoring, control, and supervision; (2) responsiveness and involvement; and (3) democratic parenting — that is, joint decision-making regarding decisions affecting the adolescent child. Sharing family dinner on the majority of days each week and democratic parenting were identified as two of the most protective actions parents can take. Harris noted that "when families share all or most dinners together, substance abuse is lowest," and that "across all family structures, parents who practice democratic parenting are less likely to have children involved in delinquency" (Institute for Youth Development, 2005).