Police History, Structure, and Functions in America

Colonial Origins of American Policing

The development of the policing system in Britain was closely followed by a similar development in America. Policing by the initial colonizers assumed two forms: "The Big Stick" (for-profit, private agency policing) and the "Watch" (communal and informal) (Spitzer, 1979). The latter system was made up of community volunteers primarily charged with warning citizens of imminent danger. The night watch was first implemented in 1636 in Boston. New York and Philadelphia implemented their night watch systems in 1658 and 1700, respectively. This system did not prove particularly successful in controlling crime.

Supplementing the "Watch" mode of policing was a group of official law enforcers labeled "constables," who were often paid through a fee system based on the number of warrants they served. Policing's informal procedures continued for several years following the 1765–83 American Revolution. Only in the 1830s did the United States first introduce a municipal, centralized police department.

Widely recognized as contemporary policing's founding father, Sir Robert Peel implemented several key reforms to English criminal law when he served as Home Secretary. The changes he made to the English penal code decreased the number of crimes carrying the death penalty and ensured the education of convicts. Robert Peel instituted London's Metropolitan Police on the basis of nine self-formulated law enforcement principles. These contemporary police bodies shared the following characteristics: (1) a bureaucratic and publicly supported organization; (2) full-time police officers, rather than fee-based case retainers and community volunteers, constituting the organization; (3) fixed, consistent procedures and rules, with continuous official employment; and (4) accountability to a central governmental organization (Lundman, 1980).

Impact of Sir Robert Peel on American Policing

Contemporary community policing's founder, Peel, served as Home Secretary of the United Kingdom between 1812 and 1818. He was known for his stern yet fair personality. He aided Ireland in establishing a native police force to calm the regional conflicts that surfaced after Ireland joined the United Kingdom. He accomplished far-reaching penal reform and went on to ensure the passage of the 1829 Metropolitan Police Act (MPA), which played a central role in the creation of the Metropolitan Police. In addition to the MPA, he composed the famous nine "Peelian Principles" of law enforcement, which maintained essentially that police officers are citizens and citizens are the police, and that crime can be prevented without closely intruding into the lives of citizens (Lewis, 2011).

Certain practices derived from Peel's model of community policing include qualitative engagement with the public — rather than simply counting arrests — and the issuance of badge numbers to guarantee officer accountability. English police officers trained in the Peelian Principles were stationed across urban areas; the public commonly called them "Bobbies" or "Peelers" (Lewis, 2011).

Robert Peel emphasized crime prevention, not detection, as the police officer's chief responsibility. He made officers directly answerable to himself at the Home Office level — hence the informal nicknames noted above. His guidance to fill senior uniformed positions by promoting from within the ranks, rather than drawing from the upper classes of society, is still followed today. He himself claimed to accept a low salary, as he did not wish any member of the police force to feel superior to colleagues or to the role itself.

Relationship Between the U.S. Government and Policing Organizations

Policing organizations and the American government share a relationship that is generally intertwined but carries significant potential for conflict. Law enforcement officials must adhere to a broad collection of rules, regulations, and jurisdictions, and their roles differ depending on the state and city. American governmental bodies and law enforcement organizations at the federal level have an entirely independent role. Conflicts may arise when different crimes and overlapping jurisdictions create confusion about which organizational level should be addressing a given situation (Davis, 2009). Cases will normally be handled at the local level until they reach a point of intensity at which federal law enforcement must intervene. Furthermore, the nation's political parties and constitution typically influence the direction and structure of police organizations.

The government-police relationship may be characterized as a love-hate dynamic. While the government believes its decisions are in society's best interests, police officers working in the field on a day-to-day basis are directly witnessing what is occurring in communities, and their views may differ from national policy. Ultimately, however, police must adapt and remain attentive to all procedures and policies amended by policymakers.

Conclusion

American policing has deep historical roots stretching from colonial watch systems and fee-based constables through the transformative influence of Sir Robert Peel's Metropolitan Police reforms. Peel's Peelian Principles — emphasizing crime prevention, officer accountability, and the inseparability of police and community — remain a foundational reference point for law enforcement philosophy. The ongoing tension between federal authority and local policing reflects a broader challenge: how to balance effective crime control with the preservation of civil liberties and community trust. As federal and local agencies continue to collaborate more closely, the long-term implications for democratic governance and community-centered policing will require careful and continued attention.

References

Davis, R. (2009). Policing the police. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/libertycentral/2009/feb/28/convention-modern-liberty-police

Lewis, M. A. (2011). Perspective: Peel's legacy. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Retrieved from https://leb.fbi.gov/2011/december/perspective-peels-legacy

Lundman, R. J. (1980). Police and policing: An introduction. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Spitzer, S. (1979). The rationalization of crime control in capitalist society. Contemporary Crises, 3(1).

Walker, S., & Macdonald, M. (2009). An alternative remedy for police misconduct: A model state "pattern or practice" statute. George Mason Civil Rights Law Journal, 19, 479–552.