School Truancy Policies: Reducing Absenteeism in Charter Schools

Introduction: The Truancy Problem in U.S. Schools

Student truancy is a growing problem in the United States. Over the last twenty years, truancy rates have grown nationwide, with the highest rates found in inner cities (Jacob & Lovett, 2017). Research indicates that student truancy leads to potentially socially deviant behavior in adulthood (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). Many students who are absent for prolonged periods are more likely to perform poorly academically, risking class failure and facing disciplinary action. Characteristics of schools with high truancy rates include use of only punitive truancy programs, lack of alternative study options for suspended students, and lack of counseling and tutoring (Bye, 2010). There are schools that have been successful in maintaining low truancy rates, however. Those schools give students the option for tutoring, allow distance learning for suspended students, and employ a mixture of punitive and non-punitive measures (Duarte & Hatch, 2014).

With a national ranking of 764 and a Florida ranking of 66, Charter Secondary School is considered one of the best high schools in the state regarding student attendance rates and overall school participation (Great Schools!, 2017). The school has low truancy among minority students, which is a notable and distinctive quality, making it an anomaly in the surrounding area (Great Schools!, 2017). This quality will be analyzed in depth in this paper, along with the various possible reasons for students' willingness to attend class regularly and what methods school staff employ to keep the school environment positive, given that truancy rates are so low compared to other schools in the area and nationwide.

First established in 2005, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores is a public charter school built on the Barry University campus, sitting on five acres of property (Great Schools!, 2017). Located in Miami Shores, Florida, the school has a current enrollment of 599 students and a suburban campus type (Great Schools!, 2017). The school mascot is the Hawks. Rated 'A' as a college preparatory school, it holds a municipal charter via the Village of Miami Shores and serves students in grades 6–12 (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007).

In its early history, Charter Secondary School was originally a middle school established in 1997 under the name Miami Shores/Barry University Charter School (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). The nine portable structures that comprised the school served as an alternative for Miami Shores students who would otherwise attend Horace Mann Middle School (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). After eight years, the school secured more funding and was renamed in 2005. It gained a permanent structure thanks to donations from the citizens of Miami Shores and additional funds from the North Dade Medical Foundation.

The school draws funds from two separate streams. One part of the funding comes from a bond issue approved by Village residents and a large two-year grant given by the North Dade Medical Foundation for fiscal years 2006 and 2007. The school raises the remainder of its operating expenses from the state through FTE funding (a set amount for each student in the classroom per day) and through the collection of student fees for materials and trips (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007).

The school has 31 full-time teachers for a student population of 598, reflecting a ratio of fewer than 20 students per teacher (19:1) (USNEWS, 2017). The percentage of economically disadvantaged students is 33%, with minority enrollment at 83%. Although class attendance is high and 81% of students tested for AP exams, only 47% — fewer than half — passed those exams. English and mathematics proficiency levels are 70% and 68%, respectively, which are above the district and nationwide averages (USNEWS, 2017). With a College Readiness Index of 48.8, the school still has room for improvement.

While students earn average test scores overall, students who attend this school perform better than students at other schools in the same district (USNEWS, 2017). The district average for English proficiency is 50% and for mathematics proficiency is 37%. The district average for college readiness is 44.7, representing assessments conducted across 113 schools and 113,242 students (USNEWS, 2017). With a graduation rate of 98%, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores provides a case worthy of further study.

Understanding the Reasons for Truancy

There are several reasons for truancy, and they are often complex and varied. Research on truancy suggests that a negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health problems are key contributors (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017; Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014). A negative school environment can create problems for students wishing to learn. Unlike Charter Secondary School, many classrooms across Miami are large, making it difficult for students to focus in class and receive the attention necessary for understanding the curriculum (Losen, 2015). If a student has questions or needs examples for a specific assignment, the teacher may not have the time or patience to address that student while simultaneously managing 29 other students with similar needs.

Many schools across the country have strict policies regarding disruptive student behavior that can result in suspension or even expulsion. Several factors can cause disruptive behavior among students (Losen, 2015). One common reason is poverty. "High levels of poverty have a negative effect on school behavior. This is attributed largely to the chronic and acute stress experienced by students living in poverty. The exposure is associated with externalizing behaviors that are disruptive in school settings" (Hutcheson, 2014, p. 1). Students facing poverty may be part of an unstable household, endure problematic or abusive home situations, and have limited access to resources. These students need opportunities to learn from their mistakes and receive help that could make a positive difference in their lives. Instead, they are suspended or expelled without being given a chance to improve. High rates of suspension can contribute to higher rates of truancy.

"The bifactor structure reflected a general factor of Problems in Behavioral Engagement and two group factors: Problems in Social Engagement and Problems in Academic Engagement" (Barghaus et al., 2016, p. 154). Researchers note that students may not have problems academically, but instead socially — they may not feel comfortable engaging with other students due to fear of judgment or an inability to socialize properly. Providing students with the tools to engage both socially and academically can allow for a higher percentage of positive academic outcomes. Student interest may also play a key role in truancy (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). Suspensions and expulsions may negatively impact student interest. When students receive suspensions, they lose access to schoolwork, and when the suspension ends, they may find it significantly harder to catch up (Reid, 2014).

If there is no option to complete schoolwork and students cannot attend school or contact the teacher for assignments, they are placed at an automatic disadvantage (Reid, 2014). This is especially true for students who already struggle academically. Falling behind when a student has experienced low grades can deepen setbacks and potentially result in class failures (Reid, 2014). By exploring incentive theory of motivation and research showing the connection between expulsion/suspension, student interest, and truancy, the hope is to clarify why truancy rates are high and what can be done to counteract them. The problems of negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017; Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014) must all be addressed for truancy programs to be effective.

The scope of problems associated with truancy is large. For the purpose of this study, the specific focus will be school-based policies and procedures that may mitigate or reduce truancy. Without a proper synthesis of the reasons surrounding the problem, there will be limited understanding of how to approach the study. It is therefore important to define the scope of the problem to improve the quality of the research.

Statement of the Problem and Purpose of the Study

Truancy rates in the United States are a growing problem (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014). Whether a student is absent due to a suspension or because they willingly choose to be absent, the problem has become worthy of research and possible intervention. Truancy rates are higher in schools with low socioeconomic status (Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014).

The problem addressed by the study is: educational leaders may have implemented policies and procedures in public charter schools, but documentation about which are most effective and why is largely absent. Current policies have contributed to higher truancy rates through their zero-tolerance approach, which enables harsher punishment of student behavior. "Since the 1990s, implementation of zero tolerance policies in schools has led to increased use of school suspension and expulsion as disciplinary techniques for students with varying degrees of infractions" (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When students are suspended or expelled, they may have a harder time catching up in school and succeeding academically, which can lead to further problems as students mature.

Research suggests the experience of suspension or expulsion could lead to illegal behavior associated with a criminal record. "Being suspended or expelled from school increased the likelihood of arrest in that same month, and this effect was stronger among youth who did not have a history of behavior problems and when youth associated with less delinquent peers" (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When schools expel and suspend students, negative behaviors associated with truancy may increase. The zero-tolerance policies in schools have become a primary cause for concern in growing cases of suspension and expulsion because they are considered purely punitive measures (Schargel, 2014). Policies therefore need to be changed to address this problem. Although truancy does not directly lead to crime, the two are often highly correlated (Schargel, 2014).

The purpose of the study is to understand school leaders' perspectives about whether effective policies and procedures reduce truancy and improve student attendance. By interviewing key staff at Charter Secondary School — a public charter school with low truancy levels — information on effective policies and procedures can be gathered. These findings may provide a better understanding of what school leaders in other schools can do to improve attendance.

Attendance plays a large part in academic performance and in avoiding suspension (Schargel, 2014). Research about truancy reduction suggests that students with more attendance options may be able to overcome the difficulties that contribute to truancy (Reid, 2014). Effective school policies that improve attendance may contain processes and options that provide such support and variability. Without understanding these aspects, little practical help can be generated and implemented for students in need.

Charter Secondary School has better attendance and better academic performance compared to other schools in the district on average. Furthermore, most of its students are minorities or non-white. This school is a strong starting point for investigating effective school policies. Examination of other successful schools should provide a measure of effectiveness needed to better understand what strategies can improve attendance and how schools handle variables such as minority-majority demographics and urban, rural, or suburban settings.

Literature Review: School-Based Truancy Programs

Student truancy has become a major issue schools try to tackle (Rollnick, 2016). To improve truancy outcomes, there is a need to research and cultivate worthwhile strategies to reduce negative behaviors that lead to truancy, as well as to understand why students are truant in the first place. Poverty and a negative school environment have raised concern about the likelihood of truancy in students (Reid, 2014). It is difficult to identify the costs and benefits of various measures. Those who favor punitive discipline believe that adherence to rules leads to positive outcomes (Rollnick, 2016). Those who favor non-punitive discipline argue that giving students options can lead to better results not only in truancy rates but also in the student's personal growth (Rollnick, 2016). With so many strategies available, it can be difficult for school leaders to determine what mixture of punitive and non-punitive discipline will be most effective.

School-Based Programs

One way schools have helped decrease truancy rates is through truancy reporting. Truancy reporting allows students to be assessed for whether they are high-risk (De Witte & Csillag, 2012). Because truancy can have a profoundly negative long-term effect on students, schools have become more stringent about reporting. "A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification" (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

Researchers note that truancy reporting allows for better assessment of at-risk youth, providing a means of identifying potential problems early (De Witte & Csillag, 2012). This makes truancy reporting a preventative measure. "The idea is straightforward: if students are better monitored with respect to truancy, schools can identify more easily students at risk. The results indicate that improved truancy reporting significantly reduces school dropout by 5 percentage points" (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

Schools like the one used for this study already have a robust truancy reporting protocol in place. The rules within this protocol indicate that students cannot be absent more than a set number of days before the school becomes involved and contacts the student's household (De Witte & Csillag, 2012). More research should be dedicated to expanding preventative measures to include other indicators of at-risk behavior, such as lateness for class and missed homework assignments (Reid, 2017). If this can be achieved, it may further allow for greater early identification of potential truancy problems. Applying research to practice is popular in healthcare; perhaps it can become equally popular in education as more information emerges on student truancy (Reid, 2017).

Punitive Measures

Punitive measures for truancy can be seen through the introduction of third-party policing in schools. "Third-party policing is an approach to crime prevention and control involving the police partnering with organizations or individuals to prevent or reduce crime problems" (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014, p. 5211). By relying on legal levers that allow third parties to share accountability for controlling crime, schools may deal more effectively with growing student delinquency — though this approach also raises the risk that students enter the criminal justice system at an early age.

Punitive measures can also be costlier (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014). This is because consequences such as expulsion or suspension can further increase the likelihood of students being truant and performing poorly academically (Shelton, 2014). Students must be guided toward positive outcomes, reducing the reliance on punitive measures as the primary solution to truancy. Although short-term results may indicate a reduction in truancy, the long-term effects of punitive measures could be more negative and long-lasting (Shelton, 2014). Shelton found that students who face punitive measures may have a higher chance of committing crimes compared to those who faced non-punitive measures.

While some research suggests police intervention regarding truancy can increase parental awareness of student behavior, there are still many factors to consider regarding efficacy. Police intervention may heighten parental awareness, but it also increases the potential for truant students to end up in the juvenile criminal justice system (Mazerolle, Bennett, Antrobus, & Eggins, 2017). A mixture of both punitive and non-punitive measures may be most beneficial in tackling the problem of truancy.

Non-Punitive Measures

Punitive measures for truancy have their place in schools. However, research shows non-punitive measures are also useful and offer students a chance to improve while removing some of the stigma attached to past mistakes (Reid, 2017). Successful protocols integrate flexibility into standard methods to help the school, family, and student alike. Such programs understand individual student needs and take whatever steps are necessary to assist the family and student involved in truancy (Mallett, 2015).

One study in Australia aimed to understand truancy and its effects to generate programs that allowed for effective measures in reducing truancy rates (Taylor, Gray, & Stanton, 2016). This demonstrates that with proper research, non-punitive options are feasible. However, they must be designed in conjunction with significant research that allows a better understanding of the needs of truant students (Mallett, 2015). Haight, Chapman, Hendron, Loftis, & Kearney (2014) demonstrated that non-punitive measures like a truancy program may not work if a key process — such as tutoring or skill-building — is absent.