School Truancy Policies and Procedures in Public Charter Schools

Introduction and School Profile

Student truancy is a growing problem in the United States. Over the last twenty years, truancy rates have grown nationwide, with the highest rates in inner cities (Jacob & Lovett, 2017). Research indicates that student truancy leads to potential socially deviant behavior in adulthood (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). Many students who are absent for prolonged periods are more likely to perform poorly academically, risking failure in classes and facing disciplinary action. Characteristics of schools with high truancy rates include reliance on punitive truancy programs only, lack of alternative study options for suspended students, and lack of counseling and tutoring (Bye, 2010). There are schools that have been doing well in maintaining low truancy rates, however. Those schools give students the option for tutoring, allow distance learning for suspended students, and employ a mixture of punitive and non-punitive measures (Duarte & Hatch, 2014).

With a national ranking of 764 and a Florida ranking of 66, Charter Secondary School is considered one of the best high schools in the state regarding student attendance rates and overall school participation. The school has a low truancy rate among minority students, which is a notable and distinctive quality, making it an anomaly in the surrounding area. This quality will be analyzed in depth in this paper, along with the various possible reasons for the students' willingness to attend class regularly and what methods are employed by school staff to maintain a positive school environment — because truancy rates are so low compared to other schools in the area and nationwide.

First established in 2005, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores is a public charter school built on Barry University Campus, sitting on five acres of property. It is located in Miami Shores, Florida. The current enrollment stands at 599 students and the campus type is suburban. Rated 'A' as a college preparatory school, the school holds a municipal charter via the Village of Miami Shores and serves students from grades 6–12 (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007).

In its early history, Charter Secondary School was originally a middle school established in 1997 under the name Miami Shores/Barry University Charter School. Nine portable structures comprised the school and served as an alternative for Miami Shores students who would otherwise attend Horace Mann Middle School (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). After eight years, the school secured more funding and in 2005 was renamed. The school gained a permanent structure thanks to donations from the citizens of Miami Shores and additional funds from the North Dade Medical Foundation.

The school draws funds from two separate streams. One part of the funding comes from a bond issue approved by Village residents and a large two-year grant given by the North Dade Medical Foundation for FY 2006 and 2007. The school raises the remainder of its operating expenses from the state through its FTE funding — a set amount for each student in the classroom per day — and through the collection of student fees for materials and trips (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007).

The school has 31 full-time teachers for a student population of 598 students, reflecting a ratio of fewer than 20 students per teacher (19:1) (USNEWS, 2017). The percentage of economically disadvantaged students is 33%, with a minority enrollment of 83%. Although class attendance is high and 81% of students tested for AP exams, only 47% — fewer than half — passed those exams. English and Mathematics proficiency levels are 70% and 68% respectively, which are above the district and nationwide averages (USNEWS, 2017). With a College Readiness Index of 48.8, the school has room for improvement.

While students earn average test scores overall, those who attend Charter Secondary School perform better than students at other schools in the district. The district average for English proficiency is 50% and Mathematics proficiency is 37%. The district average for college readiness is 44.7, out of 113 schools and 113,242 students (USNEWS, 2017). With a graduation rate of 98%, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores has much to offer in terms of positive outcomes and student interest.

Understanding the Reasons for Truancy

There are several reasons for truancy, and they are often complex and varied. Some pertain to a negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health problems, among others. A negative school environment can create barriers for students wishing to learn. Unlike Charter Secondary School, classrooms across Miami often have large class sizes, making it difficult for students to pay attention and receive the individualized attention necessary for understanding the curriculum (Losen, 2015). If a student has questions or needs examples for a specific assignment, the teacher may not have the time or patience to address that student while also managing 29 other students who need the same level of attention.

Many schools across the country have strict policies regarding disruptive student behavior that can result in suspension or even expulsion. Several factors can cause disruptive behavior among students (Losen, 2015). One common reason is poverty. "High levels of poverty have a negative effect on school behavior. This is attributed largely to the chronic and acute stress experienced by students living in poverty. The exposure is associated with externalizing behaviors that are disruptive in school settings" (Hutcheson, 2014, p. 1). Students facing poverty may be part of an unstable household, endure problematic or abusive family situations, and lack access to resources. These students need opportunities to learn from their mistakes and receive help, rather than being suspended or expelled without a chance to improve. High rates of suspension can contribute to higher truancy rates.

"The bifactor structure reflected a general factor of Problems in Behavioral Engagement and two group factors: Problems in Social Engagement and Problems in Academic Engagement" (Barghaus et al., 2016, p. 154). Researchers note that students often may not have academic problems but rather social ones — they may not feel comfortable engaging with peers due to fear of judgment or difficulty socializing. Providing students with tools for both social and academic engagement can allow for a higher percentage of positive academic outcomes. Student interest may also play a key role in truancy (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017), because suspensions and expulsions may negatively impact student interest. When students are suspended, they lose access to schoolwork, and depending on the length of the suspension, they may have increased difficulty catching up once they return.

If there is no option to complete schoolwork during a suspension — and students cannot contact the teacher for assignments — this places already-struggling students at an automatic disadvantage. To fall behind when a student is already receiving low grades could result in class failures. By exploring the incentive theory of motivation and research showing the connection between expulsion/suspension, student interest, and truancy, the aim is to clarify why truancy rates are high and what can be done to counteract the problem. The issues of negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health problems (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017; Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014) must all be addressed for truancy programs to be effective.

The scope of problems associated with truancy is large. For the purpose of this study, the specific focus is on school-based policies and procedures that may mitigate or reduce truancy. Without a proper synthesis of the reasons surrounding the problem, there will be limited understanding of how to approach the study. Therefore, it is important to define the scope of the problem to improve the quality of the study.

Statement of the Problem and Purpose of the Study

Truancy rates in the United States are a growing problem (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014). Whether a student is absent due to suspension or willingly chooses to be absent, the problem has become worthy of research and possible intervention. Truancy rates are higher in schools with low socio-economic status (Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014).

The problem addressed by this study is as follows: educational leaders may have implemented policies and procedures in public charter schools, but documentation about which are most effective — and why — is largely absent. Current policies have enabled higher truancy rates due to zero-tolerance approaches that impose harsher and stricter punishment for student behavior. "Since the 1990s, implementation of zero-tolerance policies in schools has led to increased use of school suspension and expulsion as disciplinary techniques for students with varying degrees of infractions" (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When students are suspended or expelled, they may have a more difficult time catching up academically, which can lead to other problems as students mature into adulthood.

Research suggests that the experience of suspension or expulsion could lead to illegal behavior and a criminal record. "Being suspended or expelled from school increased the likelihood of arrest in that same month, and this effect was stronger among youth who did not have a history of behavior problems and when youth associated with less delinquent peers" (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When schools expel and suspend students — thereby adding to truancy rates — negative behaviors may increase. The zero-tolerance policies of schools have become the primary cause for concern in growing cases of suspension and expulsion. Therefore, policies need to be changed to address this problem. To do so, one must examine schools like Charter Secondary School to determine what steps can produce positive change. Although truancy does not directly lead to crime, there is often a high correlation between the two.

The purpose of the study is to understand school leaders' perspectives about whether effective policies and procedures reduce truancy and improve student attendance. By interviewing key staff at Charter Secondary School — a public charter school with low truancy levels — information on effective policies and procedures can be gathered. These findings may provide a better understanding of what school leaders at other schools can do to improve truancy.

Attendance plays a large part in facing suspension and performing well academically. Research about truancy reduction suggests students with more attendance options may be able to overcome difficulties that contribute to truancy. Effective school policies that improve attendance may contain processes and options that provide such support and variability. Without understanding these aspects, little help can be generated and implemented for students in need.

Charter Secondary School has better attendance and better academic performance compared to all other schools in the district on average. Furthermore, most students are minorities or non-white. This school is an ideal starting point for investigating effective school policies. A look into other successful schools should provide a measure of effectiveness needed to better understand what strategies can improve attendance and how other schools handle situations involving a minority-majority population and varied school settings — urban, rural, or suburban.

1. What may be the cause of truancy in students?

2. How does incentive theory play a role in understanding school truancy?

3. What are the effects of punitive or non-punitive truancy programs on students?

4. What are successful truancy programs doing that has led to a reduction in truancy?

5. Why are some truancy programs unsuccessful at reducing truancy?

The research needs to delve into understanding the reasons behind truancy. For there to be solutions to the nationwide truancy problem, research must be directed toward evidence that explains the motivations behind truancy behavior and what aspects of truancy programs help eliminate such behavior. By developing a clear understanding of school truancy and why students become truant, the goal is to develop evidence-based practices that reduce school truancy. Although many school programs for truancy exist, the reality is that not many are effective.

This study is qualitative and focuses on the use of interviews to collect data. "The interview has today become one of the most widespread knowledge-producing practices across the human and social sciences in general and in critical psychology more specifically" (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008). Interviews can range from formal to informal and can be conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or via the internet. Formal interviews have a set structure where the researcher asks questions and the participant answers. Informal interviews allow for open discussion and need not adhere strictly to a predetermined list of questions. Most qualitative interviews incorporate some structure and are labeled "semi-structured." "In a semi-structured interview, the researcher provides some structure based on her research interests and interview guide but works flexibly with the guide and allows room for the respondent's more spontaneous descriptions and narratives" (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008).

There is a need to understand, from the perspective of staff and school leaders at Charter Secondary School, why the school's policies work. Understanding what improvements have been made and what kind of environment such policies promote can give a clear picture of what is being done to achieve positive outcomes for the student population. Similar studies using interviews have gathered significant and insightful information that allows for answering important questions. Using fixed effects regressions and controlling for peer group effects, researchers observe that truancy positively correlates with early school leaving: "A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification" (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

The policies surrounding truancy programs and how academic staff respond allow for themes discovered through the interview process to be compared with themes found in the literature review. This comparison can reveal whether a universal theme or concept is being applied that leads to successful academic performance and good attendance records. Allowing students and staff to give their opinions — and to discuss the causes behind those opinions — will make it easier to analyze responses.

The complex nature of truancy allows for focus on various narratives as researchers attempt to understand and resolve the problem. Many avenues point toward potential solutions, with experience indicating both negative and positive outcomes. Therefore, school leaders' visions — both at the selected school and at successful truancy programs more broadly — will provide a scope of what may be valuable in reducing student truancy rates. Within this conceptual framework lies the theoretical framework of incentive and motivation.

An important theory explored in this paper is the incentive theory of motivation. "People are pulled towards behaviors that offer positive incentives and pushed away from behaviors associated with negative incentives. The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards" (Rehman & Haider, 2013, p. 141). If students are incentivized to attend class through rewards, this may be a crucial element missing in schools with high truancy rates, and it may also explain the downward spiral experienced by some students when they are severely punished for being absent. Charter Secondary School offers non-academic awards to students who are respectful and maintain good attendance records, potentially serving as incentives for continued participation. The school's attendance procedure is strict but allows for evaluation of the reasons behind a student's absence. One rule is that if a student misses a given number of days, they have that same number of days to make up the work — leaving some room for students to resolve their problems and continue attending school, thus increasing motivation to follow school rules.

The main assumption guiding this study is that truancy policies and procedures are the cornerstone of truancy rate reduction. Other assumptions include the notion that higher rates of truancy lead to poorer academic performance. When students fail to attend class voluntarily, they put themselves at greater risk of performing poorly in school, due to their inability to keep up and their lack of motivation to complete assignments. They may be unwilling to attend school due to mental health problems, an unstable home life, or physical health conditions. Another assumption is that students living in poverty and minority students may have a more difficult time in school due to a turbulent home life and the effects of institutionalized racism. Although this topic is not covered in depth in this paper, it is important to recognize the difficulties that can stem from a lack of resources and minority status, and to consider how those difficulties affect truancy rates — ultimately informing the creation and implementation of more effective school policies.

The study is limited to one public charter school. This is because of the need to understand what the school does and then compare that information to other successful schools. Another limitation is the number of people available to interview. Because the interview method is qualitative and in-person, only a limited number of participants can be engaged. The study is also limited to schools within the United States, and the literature review will examine only how American schools handle truancy and the policies that either decrease or increase truancy rates. A final limitation concerns parents: although parental opinion may be helpful, the interviews are limited to students and staff, with parents providing permission for student participation. No other limitations are noted.

The study is qualitative and will use interviews with school staff to collect data. Interview transcripts will be analyzed to identify underlying themes from respondents at Charter Secondary School. By asking targeted questions, the aim is to understand what effective policies are in place that allow for better attendance rates than other schools in the district. Notably, the school also fares better in terms of academic scores and has a high graduation rate. If location plays a part — as the school is situated in a suburban area — this should be explored through interview questions to gain a fuller understanding of all aspects of effective policy within the school.

The literature review provides a foundation; the interviews provide the data. Beyond serving as a basis for interview questions, the literature review functions as a comparative guide against which interview data can be measured. If other successful schools have similar policies in place, this could serve as a potential national standard to help decrease truancy throughout the country. The literature review also provides examples of policies in high-truancy schools, illustrating what should not be done. Results will be discussed within the context of potential modifications that could further improve attendance rates and academic success.

Ultimately, it is important to understand what Charter Secondary School has to offer and to assess whether that can serve as a model for other schools in the district — and potentially across the country. Although the qualitative study is small, including only six students and four staff members, it may provide insight that cannot be gathered elsewhere. Nationwide truancy rate databases may also be consulted as a comparative tool.

The study can be an important step in learning what works for schools aimed at reducing truancy and what does not. Findings may lead to the standardization of effective programs and policies. Public schools across the United States need to know that they can improve their students' academic progress and attendance. First, however, they need to see evidence that certain policy implementations work and are worth the time, money, and effort. Like evidence-based practice in nursing, staff need to see evidence from policies that have already been implemented and have led to improved attendance and student success.

While examining the statistics of a successful school is helpful, it is even more significant if schools can see the steps taken to reach that level of success. That collected information can then be compared to other schools to identify the core principles and actions that have produced positive results. Growth and positive outcomes can only come from tested and approved practices. The conceptual framework will serve as a guide to determine whether assumptions and hypotheses can be proven or disproven through comparison and analysis.

Researchers need to continue pursuing information and analysis to offer potential guidelines and directions for schools that need them. The growing problem of truancy in the United States requires a thoughtful assessment of ongoing issues. These issues will remain prevalent unless action is taken — and action cannot be taken without sound research and evidence to support it.

Lastly, studies such as this one offer an anchor point for investigating other aspects of school life, school environment, and student behavioral problems. If students have problems stemming from struggles with sexuality, gender identity, or even political affiliation, these could also be investigated in future studies. The results could then be used to drive changes in policies, leading to continued progression toward a safe and positive school environment.

Truancy: When a student stays away from school without a sufficient reason; also labeled as absenteeism. Days suspended may be included in truancy rates.

Charter School (in the United States): A publicly funded independent school established by community groups, parents, or teachers under the terms of a charter with a national or local authority.

Expulsion: Permanent withdrawal or exclusion; when a student is banned or removed from a school system or university due to consistent violations of an institution's rules, or in extreme cases, for a single sufficiently serious offense.

Suspension: Regarding schools, suspension — also known as temporary exclusion — is a mandatory leave given to a student as a form of penalty that can last from a single day to several weeks, during which the student cannot attend school or enter the school building (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2013).

In conclusion, truancy rates are a growing problem in United States schools. Charter Secondary School is one school that aims to reduce truancy rates and has done so according to recent statistics. By exploring Charter Secondary School's policies and other school policies that increase or decrease truancy rates in Florida, the study hopes to understand what may cause truancy in schools and what reduces it. If better and improved handling of student issues is the solution to truancy, it must be explored. The next section is a literature review that will focus on important policies already in place in other schools and how these policies may be similar to or different from those at Charter Secondary School, along with the negative effects of high truancy rates and the causes of those rates in schools.

The next section examines, through recent literature, the significance of truancy and how it connects school measures with student behavior. Some schools take punitive measures toward truancy, others take non-punitive approaches, and still others take a mixture of both. The literature review will bring additional aspects into context — from environmental factors to mental health — and explore why such measures are adopted.

Literature Review: School-Based Programs and Disciplinary Approaches

Student truancy has become a major issue that schools try to tackle. Therefore, to improve truancy outcomes, there is a need to research and cultivate worthwhile strategies to reduce the negative behaviors that lead to truancy — while also understanding why students are truant in the first place. Poverty and a negative school environment are issues that raise significant concern regarding the likelihood of truancy. It becomes difficult to identify the costs and benefits of various measures. Those who favor punitive discipline believe that adherence to rules leads to positive outcomes. Those who favor non-punitive discipline seek to demonstrate how giving students options produces better results — not just in truancy rates, but in the student's personal growth. With all the available strategies, it can be difficult for school leaders to determine what mixture of punitive and non-punitive discipline will work. The goal is to show the success of programs and schools that have achieved a reduction in truancy rates, as well as the policies that increase truancy rates, in order to demonstrate how to improve student outcomes.

Aside from creating stronger community connections, another way schools can decrease truancy rates is through truancy reporting. Truancy reporting allows students to be assessed for high-risk status. Because truancy can have profoundly negative long-term effects on students, schools have become more stringent in truancy reporting. "A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification" (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

Researchers note that because truancy reporting allows for better assessment of at-risk youth, it can provide a means of identifying potential problems with students early on, making it a preventative measure. "The idea is straightforward: if students are better monitored with respect to truancy, schools can identify more easily students at risk. The results indicate that improved truancy reporting significantly reduces school dropout by 5 percentage points" (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

Schools like the one studied here already have a robust truancy reporting protocol in place, with rules specifying that students cannot be absent beyond a certain threshold before the school contacts the student's household. More research should be dedicated to how preventative measures can expand to include additional indicators of at-risk behavior, such as lateness to class or missed homework assignments. Applying research to practice is common in healthcare; perhaps it can become equally common in education as more information emerges on student truancy.

Punitive measures for truancy can be seen through the introduction of third-party policing in schools. "Third-party policing is an approach to crime prevention and control involving the police partnering with organizations or individuals to prevent or reduce crime problems" (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014, p. 5211). This approach may help schools deal with growing student delinquency but may also make it easier for students to enter the criminal justice system at an early age.

Punitive measures can also be costlier in the long run. Expulsion or suspension can further increase the likelihood of students being truant and performing poorly academically (Shelton, 2014). Students must be guided toward positive outcomes, which means reducing reliance on the belief that punitive measures alone will curb truancy. Although short-term results may indicate reduction, the long-term effects could be more negative and long-lasting (Shelton, 2014). Shelton noted that students who face punitive measures may have a higher chance of committing crimes compared to those who face non-punitive measures.

While some research suggests police intervention in truancy can increase parental awareness, there are still many factors to consider regarding efficacy — including the increased potential for truant students to enter the juvenile criminal justice system (Mazerolle, Bennett, Antrobus, & Eggins, 2017). A mixture of both punitive and non-punitive measures may be most beneficial in tackling the problem of truancy.

Punitive measures for truancy have their place in schools. However, research shows non-punitive measures are also useful and offer students a chance to improve while removing some of the stigma attached to past mistakes. Successful protocols integrate flexibility into standard methods to help the school, family, and student. Such programs understand individual students' needs and do whatever is essential to assist the family and student involved in truancy (Mallett, 2015).

One study in Australia aimed to understand truancy and its effects in order to generate programs allowing for effective measures at reducing truancy rates among students (Taylor, Gray, & Stanton, 2016). This demonstrates that with proper research, non-punitive options are feasible. However, they must be implemented alongside significant research that better addresses students' needs. Haight, Chapman, Hendron, Loftis, & Kearney (2014) demonstrated how non-punitive measures like a truancy program may not work if a key process — such as skill-building through tutoring — is not included.