Self-Image and Self-Perception in Luxury Fashion Brand Choice

Introduction and Statement of the Problem

The need for fine-tuned, effective marketing strategies has never been greater, especially when it comes to knowing which customers prefer certain brands and why. According to Michman, Mazze, and Greco, "In today's competitive economic environment, knowing your customer has never been more important" (2003: 30). Among the tools marketers use to match brand with customer type are positioning and pricing. As Michman and his associates explain, "Positioning strategy is linked to lifestyle market segmentation. Positioning is the process of distinguishing a company or product from competitors along such dimensions as product characteristics or values that are meaningful to consumers. For example, Dior is positioned as a French designer" (2003: 32). Likewise, Parsa and Naipaul report that "psychological pricing is the practice of structuring and presenting prices to appeal to consumers' emotions and to influence their decision-making processes" (2007: 7).

Luxury brands in particular try to distinguish themselves from lower-priced competitors by emphasizing the attributes of their product or service that may be most appealing to their targeted market — including a higher price — provided there are sufficient attributes to justify the price differential, a marketing technique that is centuries old. As Twitchell reports, "In the sixteenth century, for the first time objects could be produced in collectible quantities so that a new class of recently affluent men could collect, sequester, and then show them off" (1999: 183). The significance of these origins of luxury can still be seen today. Twitchell adds, "We still know the names of the luxury brands of the Renaissance — Giotto, da Vinci, Botticelli, Michelangelo — because they are still the premier luxury brands lusted after by the super rich. We call them by a special name — art — but they really are also the forerunners of display brands" (1999: 183).

Although more modern luxury brands have emerged from these early forerunners, the fundamental human nature issues driving the desire to own them have remained essentially the same. Twitchell notes, "We are little different from our early-modern ancestors. Clearly, this desire is not really connected to materialism, but to human yearning. The market for luxury goods, begun in sixteenth-century Italy, has encompassed the world" (1999: 183).

Research conducted by the McKinsey Corporation on luxury consumption indicates that over the past two decades alone, the market for luxury goods grew to an estimated $70 billion annually, with demand now global in scope (Twitchell 1999). This growth is due in part to how luxury brands position themselves through the powerful meanings associated with them. According to Twitchell, "The dominant paradox for this explosion of luxury brands is not that human beings are crass, it is that they are idealistic. They don't want things, they want meaning. Luxury brands carry meaning very efficiently. That is part of why they cost more" (1999: 183). This observation indicates that a positioning strategy targeting more affluent consumers will not hide the higher prices of these goods but will instead emphasize them. Michman et al. conclude that "positioning strategy aids customers in evaluating product attributes that are of significance or value to them" (2003: 32), meaning that for some consumers, higher prices equate to higher quality and a superior value.

Formulating effective positioning strategies in a dynamic environment can be a challenging enterprise, and this is certainly the case for luxury brands that must continually redefine themselves in terms of what their customers want. Kahle and Chiagouris emphasize that "today's luxury market is in a situation of constant and at times radical change. The rapid and continuing evolution of consumer attitude and behavior patterns is paralleled by an ongoing restructuring and concentration among producers" (1997: 355). This dynamic condition makes formulating effective marketing regimens particularly challenging. Kahle and Chiagouris add that "if there is any common denominator in the luxury markets across countries, it is the growing internal diversity of consumer tastes and habits. This leads to market fragmentation, a loss of economies of scale, and a splintering of brand identity within any particular country" (1997: 355).

For multinational firms, this is an especially salient point: even though luxury brands may not be able to use a universal marketing message, they still need to identify a sufficient number of commonalities among consumers in different countries to position their products appropriately. As Kahle and Chiagouris stress, "Such market conditions make it imperative to identify transnational targets that share enough common traits to allow for a similar positioning in different countries" (1997: 355). Unfortunately, there remains a glaring lack of research concerning the influence of self-perception and self-image on consumers' choice of luxury fashion brands. Kahle and Chiagouris emphasize that "fashion and apparel [is] an image industry that does not rely on research. Research often means tracking what sells and what doesn't" (1997: 237).

This fine-tuning is important because of the higher prices commanded by luxury brands, which must be justifiable when the consumer makes a purchase decision. The gap between luxury brands and less expensive but potentially equal-quality brands is highlighted by Twitchell's observation: "If you were a visitor from a distant galaxy could you ever distinguish between such parity products as dungarees from Guess, Gloria Vanderbilt, or Calvin Klein? How could you know that Cadillac, BMW, Lexus, and Jaguar have entirely different brand personalities?" (1999: 183). These "brand personalities" represent a nebulous but important "dream factor" that makes ownership desirable to some consumers. Kahle and Chiagouris note that "the dream of owning a luxury brand item, whether it be a car, jewelry, fashion, perfume, or high-tech sound system, is at the core of consumer fantasies" (1999: 37). Determining how these powerful forces play out in the marketplace remains an important issue for luxury brand marketers. Kahle and Chiagouris observe that "traditionally, economists have stressed the role of income as a determinant of consumption behavior" (1999: 37), making more affluent consumers a natural target for luxury brand marketers.

As early as 1899, Thorstein Veblen developed a theory according to which consumers use product prices as a means of ostentatiously displaying their wealth (Veblen 1899). The choice of luxury brands over other brands is, however, a highly complex decision that takes into account a wide range of personal and subjective factors that can compel consumers to select a luxury brand even when the price is more than they would like to pay (Kahle & Chiagouris 1999). According to Fortunati, Katz, and Riccini, "There is an intriguing unresolved question concerning the relationship between Luxury and Necessity. Are long-term users of two types? The first type might be those who view it either as a necessity or as a luxury. The second type might be those who have a dual view, namely they embrace both qualities in their attitude — seeing the technology as a 'luxurious necessity' (e.g., having a wristwatch but choosing a luxury brand)" (2003: 81). Knowing the difference between these motivational factors as they relate to the constructs of self-image and self-perception can therefore help marketers fine-tune their marketing messages.

The overarching purpose of this research is to examine the influence that self-perception and self-image have on the consumer in their choice of luxury fashion brands. The researcher's initial hypothesis is that self-perception and self-image have a very strong influence on consumers in their choice of luxury fashion brands. The aims of this research are therefore:

1. To test and examine the hypothesis stated above for its validity.
2. If the hypothesis holds true, to measure how strong an influence self-perception and self-image have on the consumer in their choice of luxury fashion brands.
3. Alternatively, to show that the hypothesis is false.
4. To define self-perception and self-image.
5. To evaluate the concept of a "luxury" fashion brand.

This research will provide findings and conclusions that benefit the science of marketing, particularly in the field of consumer understanding. Understanding the rationales and motives behind consumer buying preferences, buying habits, and purchase decisions is of the utmost importance to marketing. A deepened understanding of the influence of self-perception and self-image will help luxury fashion brands better identify their target markets and understand their consumers' needs and wants.

The literature regarding self-image and product-image congruity was, according to Landon, "initiated by Levy (1959) and Gardner and Levy (1955)" (1974: 1). The first researcher to measure "the extent to which self-image is congruent with purchase" was Birdwell (1968), who concluded that "self-image was significantly more congruent with brand of car owned than with the seven other brands studied, using a semantic differential" (Landon 1974: 1). The work of Dolich (1969) also employed a semantic differential and found "a greater congruity between self-image and most preferred brand over all four product categories" and equally found that "self-image was equally effective for most preferred brands of both social and private products" (Landon 1974: 1).

This paper uses a five-chapter format. Chapter One introduces the topic under consideration, states the problem, and presents the purpose, importance, scope, and rationale of the study. Chapter Two provides a critical review of the relevant peer-reviewed literature concerning luxury brands and consumer motivation. Chapter Three presents the study's methodology, including a description of the study approach, data-gathering method, and database of study consulted. Chapter Four comprises an analysis of the data developed during the research process. Chapter Five presents the study's conclusions, a summary of the research, and salient recommendations.

Review of the Literature on Luxury Brands and Consumer Motivation

Weidman, Hennigs, and Siebels (2007), in their work "Measuring Consumers' Luxury Value Perception: A Cross-Cultural Framework," state that in view of the dynamic growth in the luxury market and the availability of luxury goods to a wider range of consumers than ever before, "the luxury market has transformed from its traditional conspicuous consumption model to a new experiential luxury sensibility marked by a change in the way consumers define luxury" (2007: 1). They also stress that "it is critical for luxury researchers and marketers in the global context to understand why consumers buy luxury, what they believe luxury is, and how their perception of luxury value impacts their buying behavior" (2007: 1). To illustrate the complexity of these perceptions, they note that "luxury" is "a construct that is subjective and multidimensional" and that a definition of the concept should "follow an integrative understanding" (2007: 1).

Luxury is defined by Weidman, Hennigs, and Siebels as "the highest level of prestigious brands encompassing several physical and psychological values" (2007: 1). They also state that luxury goods consumption involves "purchasing a product that represents value to both the individual and their reference group. Referring to personal and interpersonal oriented perceptions of luxury, it is expected that different sets of consumers would have different perceptions of the luxury value for the same brands, and that the overall luxury value of a brand would integrate these perceptions from different perspectives" (2007: 1). This differentiated perception of luxury value is stated to possibly rely on "the cultural context and the people concerned" (Weidman et al. 2007: 1).

Kapferer (1997) states that "luxury is enlightening … Luxury items provide extra pleasure and flatter all senses at once … Luxury is the appendage of the ruling classes" (1997: 253). Luxury goods "enable consumers to satisfy psychological and functional needs," with these benefits regarded as "the main factor distinguishing luxury from non-luxury products or counterfeits" (Weidman et al. 2007: 1). By contrast, necessities are described as utilitarian objects that "relieve an unpleasant state of discomfort," while luxury items are "characterized as objects of desire that provide pleasure" (Weidman, Hennigs, and Siebels 2007: 1).

Stegemann (2006), in "Unique Brand Extension Challenges for Luxury Brands," notes that many luxury brands "have a long history with their origin in France, and many luxury goods manufacturers such as Louis Vuitton, which celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2004, have been around for a long time" (2006: 1). Consumers use luxury brands, she reports, because of their "desire to differentiate themselves by either being part of this reference group or to separate themselves from other groups, preferably to become part of a higher social class" (2006: 2). Stegemann identifies three consumer segments:

1. The Elitists — the traditional affluent segment;
2. The Excursionists — the middle class that carefully and occasionally purchases luxury goods; and
3. The Distance Segment — not interested in luxury at all. (Stegemann 2006: 2)

Stegemann also reports that research by Dubois and Laurent (1994) and Dubois et al. (2001) found that consumers' attitudes toward the concept of luxury "differ considerably from those toward non-luxury brands" and that such attitudes are "ambivalent, as consumers hold strong positive and/or negative connotations towards luxury" (2006: 3).

The desire of consumers for luxury brands has been utilized to promote other products through "brand extension." Roux and Boush (1996) are reported by Stegemann to have "built upon the research by Roux (1995) and examined the effect of consumers' brand knowledge on both their evaluation of luxury brand extension and their inferences about the effect of the extension on the original brand" (2006: 3). These researchers determined that "brand knowledge positively affects quality perceptions of potential brand extensions. Consumers showed a favorable attitude towards luxury brand extensions, which were predominantly evaluated with respect to their conceptual fit with the parent brand" (Stegemann 2006: 3).

Barnier and Rodina (2006), in "Which Luxury Perceptions Affect Most Consumer Purchase Behavior? A Cross-Cultural Exploratory Study in France, the United Kingdom and Russia," analyzed consumer perceptions of luxury across three countries and found "relevance of four luxury facets to all three cultures": (1) Aesthetics; (2) Premium Quality; (3) Product Personal History; and (4) Expensiveness. A new luxury dimension of self-pleasure was also identified as relevant for all three cultures, linked to: (1) Aspiration and Product Conspicuousness for the French; (2) Functionality and Luxury Atmospherics for the British; and (3) Functionality for the Russians.

O'Cass and Frost (2002) conducted a study using a self-administered questionnaire administered to a non-probabilistic convenience sample of 315 young consumers to assess "the relationship between brand associations" as a contributor to consumption behavior. Their findings indicate that "the status-conscious market is more likely to be affected by the symbolic characteristics of a brand; feelings aroused by the brand; and by the degree of congruency between the brand-user's self-image and the brand's image itself. Results also indicate that the higher the symbolic characteristics, the stronger the positive feelings, and the greater the congruency between the consumer and brand image, the greater the likelihood of the brand being perceived as possessing high status elements" (O'Cass and Frost 2002).

Abrams Research (2009) reported in its "Luxury Brands Survey & Report" — which surveyed more than 100 leaders and experts in the luxury industry, including influential fashion editors, designers, editors-in-chief, buyers, merchandisers, and industry analysts — that quality is the paramount dimension of luxury brand identity. The sampling felt that quality "was essential to luxury brand identity" and that "quality essentials were aligned with hallmark brands such as Chanel, Vuitton, and Rolex" (Abrams Research 2009).

Brand management, it is also noted, begins with a conceptual view of brand identity, which has been defined as "a world or a logo related to products that at the beginning has no sense and then, year after year, it acquires a meaning determined by the products and the communications of the past," while a brand could also be identified as "a system of attributes" (Saviolio 2006).

In their book Pleasure with Products: Beyond Usability, Green and Jordan suggest that although there is no universally accepted definition of luxury, a literal definition means "enjoyment of a rich, comfortable lifestyle and the indulgence of pleasure" (2001: 125). They add that "recent mergers and acquisitions through companies such as LVMH, SMH, Gucci or Prada are testimony to the use of luxury as a strategic position. These companies have accumulated a set of different luxury brands in various product categories including apparel, watches, shoes and food" (2001: 125). The perceived superior quality of luxury goods is used to justify these high margins, and "these developments, and the efforts to create new luxury experiences, show that luxury is becoming an important category in itself" (Green and Jordan 2001: 125). In this context, Intagliata, Ulrich, and Smallwood report that "when product efficacy and advertising are both successful, product brand is attained and the product typically achieves a price premium of about 30%" (2000: 12).

The Influence of Self-Perception and Self-Image on Luxury Fashion Brand Choice

People's sense of self has been shown to have a direct bearing on the goods and services they seek out, and positive self-perceptions can be reasonably expected to have a corresponding impact on consumers' choice of luxury brands. According to Klein, "Positive self-perception, or high self-esteem, is a desired outcome of the developmental process. It has been linked to long-term mental health, and to emotional well-being" (1999: 579). Research also shows that individuals' sense of self-perception is an indication of their level of cognitive development and sociality (Klein 1999). The growing body of research on the effects of self-perception on individual behavior indicates that people tend to evaluate themselves along a continuum of factors, and the extent to which their self-perception matches what others think is the extent to which that self-perception is validated (Robak, Ward & Ostolaza, 2006).

There are important gender-related differences in how self-image influences consumers' choice of luxury fashion brands. Jones (2006) notes that while both men and women are drawn to luxury, men require somewhat more convincing: "We need to be convinced that our consumer decisions are ones we won't regret, that won't come back to mock us" (2006: 9). Notwithstanding these gender-related differences, Jones identifies four qualities that a luxury product for either men or women must demonstrate in order to succeed:

1. Superior quality. The item must have true luxury brand values and look and feel palpably superior to cheaper, less sophisticated products.
2. Uniqueness and limited availability. It must look completely different from its competitors and must not be available everywhere; consumers should either have to enter a luxury portal to acquire one or go far and wide to find it.
3. Status enhancement. Luxury purchases should make consumers "appear to be wealthier and cooler than we really are" (Jones 2006: 9).
4. Enhancement of self-image. "Just owning it should make us feel special, magical and distinct from the crowd" (Jones 2006: 9).

It is also possible to develop a measure of emotional interaction with luxury brands using emotional and rational attributes. Kahle and Chiagouris suggest, "We ask not only what you think of the brand but what you think the brand thinks of you. If a consumer, for example, rates a brand high on status and quality but believes that the brand does not find her worthy of that status, then she won't feel good about the brand and won't feel that she belongs" (1997: 234). As shown in studies by Bozell, consumer perception gaps between non-users and users of a brand can be dramatic. Non-users typically rate themselves considerably higher on measures such as being fun-loving (67% vs. 25%), caring (78% vs. 56%), bright (51% vs. 22%), independent (61% vs. 28%), feeling good about themselves (60% vs. 35%), and active and energetic (51% vs. 20%) than their user counterparts (Kahle & Chiagouris 1997: 235).

Kahle and Chiagouris emphasize that "consumers are not blank slates. Everything must relate back to the consumer's interpretation. For example, specific feelings might influence one's particular choice of lingerie to wear for a special occasion. The story doesn't end there, however. The lingerie, in turn, influences how one feels about oneself during the occasion and the wearing of the lingerie" (1997: 234). Individual perceptions of brand images are therefore an important aspect in formulating a purchase decision for a luxury brand.

Demographics alone do not provide the robust picture required to identify niche markets for luxury brands. Kahle and Chiagouris note that "demographics — or the more current concept of life stages — are important. Teens, for example, differ from adults in life situation and needs" (1997: 236). Research confirms that teens place considerably greater importance on emotional needs such as "get noticed" (+29 percentage points compared to adults), "look good in front of friends" (+26), "feel I belong" (+19), and "feel I have good taste" (+26) (Kahle & Chiagouris 1997: 236).

Applying these concepts to the luxury fashion industry, Kahle and Chiagouris provide a segmentation framework that yields six discrete consumer groups. The first three seek emotional fulfillment through their clothing choices:

The Status Seeker buys well-known brands, most of which she has purchased before. She buys good-quality clothing that is classic, plain, and simple in style. Buying brand names both rewards her and gives her confidence in her choices. She chooses brands that help her feel special and that she belongs, and is drawn to designer and recognizable logos. Demographically she is in her mid to late 30s and 40s, married, and more likely than other groups to be a homemaker, with a household income of approximately $50,000.

The Cosmopolitan Fashion Seeker is more striking in appearance and wears expensive clothes that are both stylish and elegant. She is proud of her body and wants to show it off. She buys what looks good and does not need the reassurance of a brand name. She wants clothes that help her feel elegant, sophisticated, and feminine, and loves to get dressed up for special occasions. She is in her mid-30s, a married college graduate with a white-collar job and a household income of $60,000, and shops in women's specialty and department stores.

The Trendy Buyer is very self-aware and puts a great deal of time and effort into shopping. She wears stylish, cutting-edge apparel and wants her clothes to fit closely and show off her figure. She buys by brand and wants clothes that help her feel sexy, outgoing, and self-expressive. She is young, in her late 20s to early 30s, single, employed with a household income of at least $30,000, and shops in department stores.

The remaining three groups seek less emotional fulfillment through their clothes:

The Uninvolved purchases quality clothing but is looking for good value rather than brand prestige. She is practical in her choice of clothes and states that her esteem comes from within and from relationships with her family. She is well-educated, in her late 30s, married with children, works part-time, and has a household income of $50,000 or more. She shops at J.C. Penney and Sears.

The Rejector almost rejects style entirely, seeking only loose-fitting, comfortable clothing. She tends to be a little older, in her late 30s and married, with a high school education and a household income of under $40,000. She shops in factory outlets, Kmart, and Walmart.

The Cost Prudent determines value solely by cost. She does not have a great deal of discretionary income and does not want to spend it on clothes. She buys on sale primarily to find something inexpensive. She is in her late 20s to early 30s, married, with a high school education and a household income of under $35,000, and shops at Kmart and Walmart (Kahle & Chiagouris 1997: 241–242).

Taken together, it is clear that the constructs of self-image and self-perception have an enormous impact on luxury brand purchase decisions across various market segments. Other factors — some of which involve self-image and self-perception in a tangential way — also play an important role.

The purchase decision for luxury brands is a highly complex affair not easily reducible to a neat set of figures or a single answer applicable to all consumers. Groskop (2006) reports that the effects of popular television series such as Sex and the City are highly significant, and fashions shown on these programs can have an immediate market effect. Fashion models and designers represent another important force in how consumers perceive luxury brands. According to Groskop, "The British stylist Katie Grand has overseen the makeover of several luxury fashion brands. Names such as Arianne Phillips and Anna Bingemann can make or break a designer's career" (2006: 30). In some cases, luxury brands go to extreme lengths to ensure they are perceived as exclusive. As a recent article by Craven notes, Derrick Campbell, in defense of the Lyle & Scott brand, threatened to destroy approximately 20,000 sweaters — some selling for £145 — rather than allow the label to be discounted in discount stores or street markets (2009: 49).