Sociocultural Perspectives on Childhood Behavior and Development

Introduction: Childhood as a Cultural Construct

"Children's capacity to choose appropriate behaviour is influenced by their developmental ability, temperament, interactions, life experiences and environmental factors." (Government of South Australia, 2004)

Children's behavior is a reflection of a constellation of different factors, including but not limited to genetics, environment, and epigenetics — the ways in which the environment interacts with and affects biology. The concept of what constitutes a "badly" behaved child is not a universal construct. During the Middle Ages, children were often viewed as potentially malevolent creatures in need of civilizing; in the Victorian era they were often viewed with sentimentality (Porter, 2009, p. 11). Both of these contrasting beliefs have lingered into our own era, alongside other culturally constructed ideas, including the notion that children possess only limited capability (Porter, 2009, p. 12).

Many of our beliefs about childhood are actually quite contradictory, such as the idea that children are the future and must be carefully cultivated so that they mature properly, contrasted with the idea that childhood must be eternally preserved (Porter, 2009, p. 13). All of these assumptions ignore the individual nature of each child and the unique circumstances he or she is born into. The quote above stresses the degree to which a variety of influences shape the child, but the concept of "appropriate" is itself a highly mutable construct.

In earlier eras, the notion that children should be seen but not heard was widely embraced; today, an entire subculture revolves around entertainment created solely for children and child-safe spaces where children can "just be kids." Both of these extremes reflect the extent to which childhood is a culturally bound notion that changes over time. In the sociocultural concept of childhood, "'knowing' is linked to 'doing' and the relationship between understanding and social action is symbiotic. The knowledge of everyday life assigns children to childhood by their parents, guardians and other adults… child or childhood is associated with and structured by a variety of assumptions, meanings and understandings that relate to that particular social world" (Kenninson, Goodman, & Metcalf, 2008, p. 1). Children do not create the concept of childhood, nor do individual adults; childhood is a cultural product.

Sociocultural Influences on Children's Behavior

The problem with a solely disciplinary focus on shaping and molding children's behavior in today's society is that it does not instill the capacity to choose between right and wrong in the child, and does not treat the child as an independent organism. Children need a sense of self-efficacy if they are going to be willing to regulate their emotions and engage in cooperative relationships, as is expected of adults in our society (Porter, 2009, p. 13). Sociocultural conceptions of childhood education stress the contextual nature of adult assumptions about children. Adults are required to be equally self-critical of their own assumptions, and children must be willing partners in the socialization process. Through this, they are much more likely to attain the type of autonomy that is so prized within our individualistic Western society.

While we prize independence as a culture, many of our assumptions about childhood seem to focus solely upon making children continually dependent upon their caretakers, leading to a constant sense of frustration for both teachers and parents. The sociocultural perspective does not deny that there are certain aspects of a child's development that cannot be changed and are hard-wired into neurological functioning. For example, all infants appear to be born egocentric in the sense that they have little sense of subjectivity outside of themselves: an awareness of others, including the recognition that others have feelings different from their own, only comes with time, along with other developmental constructs such as object permanence (Dougherty, 2009, p. 379–380).

There are also certain temperamental components that appear partly genetic and partially learned, such as shyness. Although human beings are said to be innately social animals, introversion and extroversion exist on a continuum. Some children are more apt to be outgoing, although parental influence and experiences with peers can cause this trait to be cultivated or suppressed. Similarly, more introverted children may learn to be more social, while if they have similarly introverted parents and negative early experiences, this character trait may be reinforced. The desirability of extroversion or introversion as a trait, however, will vary cross-culturally.

Parenting Styles and Child Development

Parenting styles can also encourage or inhibit aggressive or prosocial behaviors in children. Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting may influence children in different ways. Authoritative parents set reasonable boundaries for their children; they reward positive behaviors while still respecting children's autonomy. In contrast, authoritarian parents are rigid and unyielding in their expectations and offer little praise; they take a suspicious view of their children and are inflexible. Permissive parents allow the child to dictate the household and set few limits. And some parents, of course, are virtually uninvolved with their children at all times (Dougherty, 2009, p. 396).

Children from households with authoritative parents tend to have higher self-esteem. In contrast, children from authoritarian households often have low self-esteem, given the constant belittling they receive and their inability to conform to or meet their parents' demands. Children with permissive parents often have little sense of being able to gratify their own wishes or the desires of others, since their parents always capitulated to them. Children with emotionally absent parents who do not satisfy their needs are more likely to be asocial and hostile (Dougherty, 2009, p. 396).

Interaction with parents is not the sole determinant of the child's behavior. Peers, other relatives, and teachers also have an influence. Nevertheless, the sociocultural perspective strives to explain why there is so much variation in children's behavior — even among children from the same society who are subject to similar socialization experiences and expectations.

Conclusion: Changing Assumptions About Childhood

Assumptions about how children's behavior should be will continue to change in the future, and parents and educators must likewise change in their responses. This does not deny the need for socialization. However, adults who interact with children — not just parents or educational professionals — can benefit from being more self-conscious about their own point of view regarding what constitutes correct behavior from a child. Greater self-awareness can create more realistic and positive experiences with children for both adults and the children they encounter.

References

Doherty, J. (2009). The social and moral world of the child. In Child development: Theory and practice 0–11. London: Longman, 377–423.

Kenninson, P., Goodman, P., & Metcalf, C. (2008). Constructing childhood and child abuse. In Children as victims. Exeter: Learning Matters, 1–14.

Porter, L. (2008). Contrasting ideas about discipline. In Young children's behaviour: Practical approaches for caregivers and teachers (3rd ed.). NSW: MacLennan & Petty, 9–18.