Suicide in Jails and Prisons: Causes, Risk Factors & Prevention

Incidence of Suicide in Prisons and Jails

According to the World Health Organization, suicide is the most common cause of death in jails and prisons. The rate of suicide in correctional facilities is also high. These institutions have a responsibility to ensure their inmates are healthy and safe, which is why a comprehensive plan for suicide prevention in correctional facilities is essential. Characteristics drawn from various sources suggest that certain populations face a higher risk of committing suicide. These include young males between the ages of approximately 15 and 49, elderly inmates — specifically elderly males — indigenous people, persons with alcohol, drug, or other substance abuse issues, and persons with mental illnesses. A report by the State of Montana Department of Corrections also suggests that having previously attempted suicide is a predisposing risk factor (Weir, 1998).

A different report suggests that all inmates are essentially high-risk individuals. Because their freedom is restricted, they endure stress that often predisposes them to suicide. Some evidence suggests that suicide rates are increasing even in facilities with fewer prisoners, a trend associated not with specific suicidal behaviors but more generally with the experience of incarceration itself. Research indicates that many inmates experience suicidal thoughts and behaviors at some point during their sentences (Warren, 2001).

Pre-trial inmates have particularly high suicide rates. Those detained during the pre-trial period are estimated to be 7.5 times more likely to commit suicide than sentenced prisoners, who are themselves approximately 6 times more likely to commit suicide compared to those released into the general population. These statistics underscore the need to examine the causes of inmate suicide more closely.

Suicide rates for inmates who are released and reoffend are also substantially higher. After release, many former prisoners find it difficult to reintegrate into the general population, which elevates their suicide risk. Suicide rates in U.S. state prisons are notably higher than in federal prisons, and men in both state and federal facilities are more likely to commit suicide than women. As a percentage of the total prison population, however, suicide rates have declined over the years — from close to 110 per 100,000 inmates in 1986 to under 40 per 100,000 today. While this represents a significant improvement, further reductions remain a public health priority.

Data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics confirm that suicide rates declined steadily through the 1980s before stabilizing. Suicide rates in federal prisons remain lower than the national average for correctional facilities overall.

Smaller jails — particularly local jails — tend to have higher suicide rates than larger state and federal facilities. This is partly because local jails serve as gateways into the justice system for the majority of inmates, meaning that for many individuals, this is their first arrest. The experience creates intense stress and pressure, particularly for those who had previously lived law-abiding lives. These individuals often struggle with guilt about their offense and face humiliation from family, friends, and the broader community as a consequence of incarceration (Topp & Welldon, 1991).

Another reason smaller jails have higher suicide rates is that they frequently lack qualified mental health professionals. They are often understaffed, and even where staff levels are adequate, personnel are assigned multiple duties — including consistent observation of prisoners — that compete for their attention (Smith, 1991).

Predisposing Factors of Inmate Suicide

The inmate environment is particularly conducive to suicide and suicidal behavior. It affords inmates a degree of isolation and privacy that are well-established predisposing factors. Many correctional facilities also lack adequate mental health services, leaving inmates to manage mental illnesses without formal support. The institutional structure of prisons further limits inmates' ability to build or maintain social support networks. Additionally, correctional populations disproportionately include groups that are statistically at higher risk of suicide, such as young people, those with substance abuse disorders, and the mentally ill — all of whom may experience acute difficulties when they can no longer access alcohol or drugs after incarceration (Joan Petersilia, 2008).

Other identified risk factors include release from prison (whether on parole or after completing a full sentence), prison overcrowding, placement in solitary confinement, serving long sentences for violent offenses, and the presence of psychiatric disorders or mental illness (Ilangaratne, 1992). Additional stressors reported in the literature include denial of appeal or parole, anxiety as release approaches, transfer to a different facility, threat of assault, physical illness, and disciplinary actions taken by prison administration (Fussell & Louie, 2008).

Taken together, the causes of inmate suicide are closely tied to the various stressors inherent to incarceration. Accordingly, any meaningful suicide prevention effort must aim to reduce these stressors and equip inmates with coping resources. Beyond their immediate benefit, such efforts have also been shown to help inmates lead more stable lives after release.

Characteristics and Histories of Victims of Prisoner Suicide

Correctional facilities house a disproportionately large number of inmates with mental health problems. A study by the Bureau of Justice Statistics found that more than 50% of all inmates had mental health issues, and approximately 75% of inmates with mental health conditions also had a concurrent substance abuse disorder — suggesting that substance abuse is a major driver of mental illness within the inmate population (Cox & Skegg, 1993).

The same study revealed that a significant proportion of inmates suffer from major depressive disorder: approximately 30% of those in local jails, 23% in state prisons, and 16% in federal correctional facilities. A related Bureau of Justice Statistics study found that one in every ten inmates had spent at least one night in a mental health institution prior to their incarceration (Conacher, 1996). The American Psychiatric Association, after reviewing these studies and additional literature, concluded that one in every five inmates requires psychiatric care as a result of mental health disorders (F. Alison, 2008).

Suicidal inmates tend to exhibit recognizable warning signs that, if observed carefully, can help staff identify individuals at risk. The single most important warning sign is an inmate explicitly telling others about their willingness to die or to commit suicide. While such statements are frequently dismissed, research consistently identifies them as the strongest predictor of suicidal behavior. Other warning signs include expressions of hopelessness or a perceived lack of reason to live, feelings of being trapped in the correctional institution, anxiety, agitation, previous suicide attempts, and extreme mood swings (L. Alison, 1999).

Although these warning signs are broadly applicable across correctional settings, research indicates they manifest with particular intensity in jails and prisons. Staff must closely monitor inmates' responses to their sentences or detention from the earliest stages of incarceration: studies show that the majority of inmates who die by suicide do so within the first 24 hours of detention (Timmermans, 2005).

Young adults arrested for nonviolent offenses — such as drug or alcohol-related crimes — are at especially elevated risk. This group often fears the prison environment intensely and is acutely anxious about how family and friends will respond to their arrest, particularly when their substance use had previously been hidden from loved ones (Schulman, 1968). Understanding the specific circumstances surrounding an inmate's arrest is therefore an important component of individualized suicide risk assessment.