Solitary Confinement Reform: Effects on Juveniles and Adults
This paper examines the practice of solitary confinement in the American criminal justice system, tracing its origins to 19th-century Quaker penal philosophy and analyzing its well-documented psychological and physical harms. Drawing on psychiatric research, case studies such as those of Stephen Slevin and Kalief Browder, and comparative international models, the paper argues that solitary confinement is particularly damaging to juveniles, whose developing brains are especially vulnerable to prolonged isolation. It considers the role of supermax prisons and institutional attitudes that dehumanize inmates, and ultimately calls for federal legislative reform to limit or abolish the practice, citing successful alternative prison models in states like Minnesota and countries like Norway.
- Introduction: Overview of solitary confinement's harms and paper scope
- What Solitary Confinement Is: History, definition, and documented psychological effects
- Why Reform Is Needed: Case studies and harm to juveniles and adults
- Importance in the Field of Criminal Justice: Ethical stakes for criminal justice professionals
- How to Enact Reform: Federal legislation and state-level reform strategies
- Places Where Reform Works: Norway's rehabilitative prison model as alternative
- Conclusion: Call for legislative change to end the practice
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What makes this paper effective
- Uses concrete, named case studies (Stephen Slevin, Kalief Browder) to ground abstract policy arguments in human consequences, making the ethical stakes vivid and accessible.
- Balances multiple forms of evidence—psychiatric research, statistical data from the Department of Justice, legal scholarship, and international comparative examples—to build a multidimensional argument.
- Organizes the argument logically: from definition and documented harm, to the need for reform, to practical reform pathways, to working real-world models.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates effective use of the problem-solution structure within a criminal justice policy argument. It does not merely catalogue harms but moves systematically toward actionable proposals—federal legislation, public awareness campaigns, and state-level best practices—showing how evidence-based reasoning connects to policy recommendations.
Structure breakdown
The paper opens with an introduction that establishes scope and stakes, followed by a definitional section grounding readers in the history and mechanics of solitary confinement. Two central sections examine the psychological harm and its criminal justice implications. A reform section addresses both federal and state-level solutions, and a comparative section highlights Norway's rehabilitative prison model as a working alternative. A brief conclusion synthesizes the argument and reiterates the call for legislative change.
Introduction
As Clark (2017) points out, solitary confinement is typically a disciplinary, administrative, or protective measure employed to punish, control, or protect an individual who is isolated from others. However, the practice can have lasting and devastating effects on the psychology and health of those confined—especially for juveniles. The reason for this damaging effect is that human beings are essentially social creatures who need sociality in order to feel whole. Exceptions to this rule have existed throughout history, primarily because one individual or another chose to live in solitude and was not confined against his or her will. Confinement against one's will can be damaging and debilitating, and numerous examples of this exist.
One particularly striking case is that of Stephen Slevin, who was arrested for drunk driving and possession of a stolen vehicle—but was never charged—was placed in solitary confinement and then forgotten about by authorities for two years before the mistake was finally realized and he was released (Allen, 2013). Slevin suffered from mental damage and physical health problems as a result of his confinement. While his example is a particularly strange and extreme one, there are others far more routine that reveal why solitary confinement is so problematic. This paper examines some of these examples, explains why this is an important issue in the criminal justice field, and discusses how reform can help address the negative ways solitary confinement impacts prisoners, particularly juveniles.
What Solitary Confinement Is
Solitary confinement is the practice of isolating a prisoner in a cell approximately 50 square feet in size. It was introduced in America by the Quakers in the 19th century, with the purpose of giving prisoners the opportunity for "sober reflection and penitence" (Clark, 2017, p. 350). When Alexis de Tocqueville toured America, he commented on this practice in no uncertain terms: "This trial, from which so happy a result had been anticipated was fatal to the greater part of the convicts…This absolute solitude…is beyond the strength of man. It destroys the criminal without intermission and without pity; it does not reform, it kills" (Clark, 2017). Today, the practice continues—with utmost severity.
The length of confinement can vary depending on the reasons for it, but typically a prisoner is confined for anywhere from 22 to 24 hours per day. The stint can last for days to weeks, and even longer in some prisons. As Dimon (2014) notes, being cut off from all human contact "wreaks profound neurological and psychological damage, causing depression, hallucinations, panic attacks, cognitive deficits, obsessive thinking, paranoia, anxiety, and anger." One Boston psychiatrist has noted that "even a few days of solitary confinement will predictably shift the electroencephalogram (EEG) pattern towards an abnormal pattern characteristic of stupor and delirium" (Grassian, 2006, pp. 330–331).
For juveniles, the alteration of brain patterns is especially troubling. Because juveniles are still in a developmental stage, solitary confinement can be particularly damaging to their mental health. In many cases, it can lead to suicidal ideation and even to a teen's suicide if the means of taking one's life are available. The Department of Justice reported that 60% of teens who committed suicide had a history of being held in confinement (Hayes, 2009). While correlation does not mean causation, it does indicate a relationship that should be deeply concerning.
Why Reform Is Needed
Solitary confinement can harm the teenage brain in numerous ways: delirium, cold sweats, episodes of panic, and disorientation have all been described by juveniles who have been locked in solitary confinement (Dimon, 2014). Clark (2017) considers it a form of child abuse, pointing out how the "immaturity and vulnerability of the adolescent brain" (p. 350) makes it susceptible to damage from prolonged isolation. The story of Kalief Browder is one such case: arrested for allegedly stealing a backpack when he was 16, Kalief was locked away for three years on Rikers Island—two of them in solitary confinement—all while awaiting a trial that never came. He was another forgotten prisoner, and the torment of solitary confinement led him to attempt suicide multiple times. He finally succeeded two years after his release, after meeting Jay-Z and other celebrities who extended their support upon hearing of the miscarriage of justice and the young man's struggles. Kalief took his own life at his parents' home—another statistic, another example of what so many other juveniles endure after prolonged solitary confinement (Gonnerman, 2015).
For these reasons, there is a pressing need for reform of the criminal justice system with regard to solitary confinement, particularly for juveniles. The problem exists for adults as well—especially in supermax prisons. Gordon (2014) describes how these institutions are structured around solitary confinement: "Demonstrating the trend toward solitary confinement's increased role in the American penal system is the development of the 'supermax' prison. Supermaxes are prisons in which all prisoners are held in extreme isolation in long-term solitary confinement, often because the prison system deems them to be gang members" (p. 497). The prisoners are kept in total isolation, unable even to see their prison guards or communicate with other prisoners through the walls, and some prison administrators have candidly stated that certain prisoners deserve to be "treated like animals" (Gordon, 2014, p. 497).
In other countries, prisoners are treated humanely and allowed to rehabilitate by connecting with nature, taking leisurely walks, and participating in support groups (Moore, 2011). In America, reform is badly needed because this type of inhumane treatment only serves to dehumanize both prisoners and guards—not to mention the society that permits it. A dehumanized society is not one that can endure for long.
Conclusion
The American practice of solitary confinement, which began with the Quakers in the 19th century, was condemned by Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America, yet it has continued to be an integral part of American penal practice. The practice has been shown to be detrimental to individuals' psychological and physical health. Juveniles suffer especially from solitary confinement—as do adults. Reform is needed for these reasons, and that means legislative change must occur. The evidence is clear, the human cost is well documented, and the alternative models are available. What remains is the political will to act.
References
Allen, N. (2013). 'Forgotten' solitary confinement prisoner wins $15.5m. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9917429/Forgotten-solitary-confinement-prisoner-wins-15.5m.html
Clark, A. B. (2017). Juvenile solitary confinement as a form of child abuse. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 45(3), 350–357.
Dimon, L. (2014). How solitary confinement hurts the teenage brain. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/06/how-solitary-confinement-hurts-the-teenage-brain/373002/
Gonnerman, J. (2015). Kalief Browder, 1993–2015. Retrieved from https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/kalief-browder-1993-2015
Gordon, S. E. (2014). Solitary confinement, public safety, and recidivism. U. Mich. JL Reform, 47, 495.
Grassian, S. (2006). Psychiatric effects of solitary confinement. Wash. U JL & Pol'y, 22, 325.
Hayes, L. M. (2009). Juvenile suicide in confinement: A national survey. Diane Publishing.
Moore, M. (2011). Michael Moore goes to Norway and visits a prison of the future. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=01mTKDaKa6Q
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