Video Games and Short-Term Memory: A Comparative Study

Introduction

Cognitive researchers have for many years investigated the link between video games and short-term memory, and in particular have examined whether video games can be used to enhance short-term memory. This line of research counterbalances findings that video game use has a negative effect on academic performance. The underlying theory is that time spent playing video games might substitute for time spent studying — which would naturally be detrimental to academic performance — but this is not directly related to the capacity of video games to enhance cognitive skills (Anand, 2007; Larson et al., n.d.).

Early studies on the effects of video games on the mind focused largely on the hypothesis that violent video games increase aggressive behavior, building on prior research that examined violent television and films in the same light. Such studies found positive associations between violent video games and aggressiveness (Anderson & Bushman, 2001), which led researchers to explore the impact of video games on cognitive function more broadly. Studies of video game-related aggression focused on the "learning, activation and application of aggression-related knowledge structures stored in memory," which are subsequently influenced by other situational input variables (Anderson & Bushman, 2001). In essence, video games rewire the brain in certain ways, and the patterns that develop from engagement with violent video games lead to a greater tendency toward violent behavior. The most successful games strike the right balance between providing enough challenge to stimulate the player without so much difficulty as to discourage engagement (Gee, 2003).

One key question in this area was whether aggressive behavior in people who play violent video games results from aggressive affect or from cognition. Carnagey and Anderson (2005) found that both were influenced by video games. What this meant for the study of video games and memory is that video games do have at least some influence over cognition — a discovery upon which later researchers were able to build.

Several studies have specifically examined the influence of video games on short-term memory. Larson et al. (n.d.) found that video games had a negative influence on short-term memory, particularly when compared to reading. Video games do not necessarily foster short-term memory gain, as the action tends to pass quickly across the screen and there is little benefit to maintaining high rates of short-term recall. However, other studies have shown that video games can have a positive influence on visual and auditory recall, likely because those are two of the primary features of video games (Larson et al., n.d.).

Blacker and Curby (2013) found, for example, that visual short-term memory is enhanced by playing video games. In their study, they noted that "action video game playing can bolster visual cognitive abilities in a domain-general manner, including abilities related to visual attention and the speed of processing." Such findings indicate that there are areas of cognitive strength related to video game use, and that the visual domain appears to be one of them. This seems to align with Larson's study, which showed that while immediate visual memory was impaired by video games, a 24-hour delayed recall task found that video gamers had better visual memories. A meta-analysis confirmed that while the positive effects of video game playing on short-term memory were supported by the literature, the effects were generally only mild (Tavarez, 2012).

Consensus on the matter has not been reached, however. In another study, video game playing was not found to be linked to improved visual sensory memory — only to visual sensitivity (Applebaum et al., 2013). That study sought to explain why so many prior studies showed video gamers to have improved response times, an enhanced ability to simultaneously apprehend and track a greater number of items, improved spatial abilities, and better task-switching skills (Applebaum et al., 2013).

Further research has sought to apply this knowledge practically. For example, Amladi et al. (n.d.) investigated the use of video games to enhance short-term memory in students with working memory deficits. This work is grounded in the principle that the ability to remember more items is improved in people who play action video games. The use of action video games as cognitive stimulation for people with working memory deficits was also supported by evidence that working memory training can produce significant effects, particularly in younger individuals.

It is also worth considering that, whatever influence action video games may have, there are other techniques available for enhancing cognition. Software programs — distinct from video games — have been designed specifically to stimulate those areas of the brain responsible for short-term memory. There is an argument that such programs may be more effective because they target these areas directly. That said, the visual memory element of video games may still confer unique benefits (Vitelli, 2014). The amount of attention paid to visuals in game design, combined with the importance of visual cues in many games — especially action games — quite likely stimulates the brain at a higher level than routine exercises. The heightened arousal associated with gameplay may amplify memory effects, and it is also likely that video games are played for longer periods than memory stimulation exercises, precisely because they are designed for entertainment. These variables have not yet been systematically tested in studies examining differences between video games and other methods of enhancing short-term and visual memory.

MRI-based studies have examined the effects on cognition in greater detail. Hummer et al. (2010) found evidence that "playing a violent video game can modulate prefrontal activity during cognitive inhibition." While people who play action video games can respond more quickly to initial stimuli, when presented with a second piece of contradictory information, they had difficulty overriding their original reaction. The study used a "go/no-go" paradigm in which the initial "go" response was contradicted, and the video game group showed a longer response time after committing to the "go" decision. This suggests that the way games affect the brain makes players faster to react initially, but that higher-level information processing is somewhat delayed. This finding has implications for studies that rely on quick reactions to visual stimuli, such as identifying a picture.

This topic is important for two reasons. First, video games are extraordinarily prevalent in contemporary society. Early studies of violent video games were prompted by concern about their effects on children, building on a broader body of research about media influence on behavior and cognition. Understanding how video games affect the brain, and how different types of games produce different effects, is therefore a matter of social relevance. Second, there is a growing body of research on whether this knowledge can be applied to improve cognition in people with working memory deficits. It is important to understand whether video games work, and if so, how and why, so that successful outcomes can be replicated and, potentially, isolated into media specifically designed to address memory deficiency.

These studies collectively point to the need for further research on video games and short-term memory. The working hypothesis for this study builds on the finding that short-term visual memory is improved by video game use. The specific hypothesis examined is that action video games can enhance short-term visual memory but do not enhance short-term verbal or numerical memory. The underlying principle is that video games affect the brain in specific ways, improving performance on tasks that engage those particular areas while leaving unrelated functions unaffected. It is expected that the null hypotheses will be demonstrated in this study.

Methodology

The study examined three groups of students. The first group consisted of those who play action video games. The second consisted of those who play other types of video games, such as quest games or puzzle games. The third consisted of those who do not play video games. All three groups were tested on visual memory, numerical memory, and verbal memory. Participants were students drawn from the available nearby population, all aged 18 or older, and all subject to informed consent procedures.

Each participant was asked to categorize their own video game usage so that they could be placed into the appropriate group. Basic demographic information — but not names — was collected so that potential differences relating to race, gender, or ethnicity could be explored in relation to performance. Minimal age variation was expected among the student population, making it unlikely that age could function as a separable variable.

Students were asked to complete a variety of memory tasks relating to visual-spatial memory, verbal memory, and numerical memory. Non-video game players served as the control group, while action game players and puzzle/quest game players constituted the two test groups, with game type serving as the key independent variable. Performance across the three memory tests served as the dependent variable.

The null hypothesis was that action video games would improve spatial memory but not verbal or numerical memory, and that puzzle or quest games would improve all three types of memory. One risk acknowledged in the study design is that the results could be skewed by pre-existing differences. People drawn to puzzle or quest games may already be predisposed to higher levels of cognition, meaning the study examines correlations rather than causation. Determining that these games actually improve memory is complicated when the players begin at a different cognitive baseline than the control group. However, as an exploratory study, if evidence is found to support the initial null hypothesis, this would highlight the need for future controlled study.

The materials used were established tests for visual memory, verbal memory, and numerical memory — tests drawn from or based on those used in prior research, not necessarily limited to video game studies but wherever short-term memory was assessed. Testing was conducted in a classroom setting free from distraction. Additional materials included paper, pens, and computers for tabulating and processing responses. The selection of appropriate tests was considered the most critical aspect of the study's resources.

Each test had its own set of measures for assessing the relevant competency. In general, these tests measured whether participants recalled what they were presented with. Testing was conducted over a 24-hour period: participants were presented with material on one day and asked to recall it the next. Results were therefore straightforward to tabulate and comparable across participants.

Demographic information and video game usage data were also relatively simple to measure. Qualitative demographic data points were treated as dummy variables in regression analyses but were still subjected to quantitative methods. Participants were also asked how much time they spent playing video games, since the study anticipated that heavier game use would produce more pronounced effects, as the games would have had more time to produce structural changes in the brain.

Results and Descriptive Statistics

The total study included 154 participants (n = 154), divided into 61 action video game players, 39 puzzle/quest game players, and 54 non-video game players. Respondents were 53.2% male (n = 82) and 46.7% female (n = 72). The sample was predominantly Caucasian (n = 110), with smaller groups of African-American (n = 18) and Asian-American (n = 25) students, and 1 participant identifying as other. All students were undergraduates or graduate students drawn from the local university population. Geography and age were not analyzed beyond this, as these were not variables of interest in the study.

The control group of 54 non-video game players provided baseline performance levels across the three tests. Action video game players performed slightly higher on the visual-spatial test than the control group, performed at roughly the same level on verbal memory, and performed slightly worse on numerical memory.

Puzzle/quest game players scored higher on visual-spatial memory than either the control group or the action game players. They scored roughly the same as the control group on verbal memory but achieved the highest scores for numerical memory among all three groups. These findings largely confirm the null hypotheses, with one exception: it had not been anticipated that action game players would score lower than the control group on numerical memory. However, the difference was not substantial and may represent an aberration rather than a meaningful effect.

References

Amladi, S., Andrist, S., Ducommun, M. & Leabo, L. (n.d.). Using action video games to train working memory in students with working memory deficits. Retrieved April 22, 2016 from

Anand, V. (2007). A study of time management: The correlation between video game usage and academic performance markers. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 10(4), 552–559.

Anderson, C. & Bushman, B. (2001). Effect of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, psychological arousal and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353–359.

Applebaum, L., Cain, M., Darling, E. & Mitroff, S. (2013). Action video game playing is associated with improved visual sensitivity, but not alterations in visual sensory memory. Attention, Perception and Psychophysics. Retrieved April 22, 2016 from

Blacker, K. & Curby, K. (2013). Enhanced visual short-term memory in action video game players. Attention, Perception and Psychophysics, 75(6), 1128–1136.

Carnagey, N. & Anderson, C. (2005). The effects of reward and punishment in violent video games on aggressive affect, cognition and behavior. Psychological Science, 16(11), 882–889.

Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 1(1), 1–4.

Hummer, T., Wang, Y., Kronenburger, W., Mosher, K., Kalnin, A. & Dunn, D. (2010). Short-term violent video game play by adolescents alters prefrontal activity during cognitive inhibition. Media Psychology, 13, 136–154.

Larson, A., Gates, S., Lutz, W., Pope, K. & Fulton, A. (n.d.). Effects of video games on immediate and delayed memory. Pacific Union College. Retrieved April 22, 2016 from

Tavarez, C. (2012). The effect of video games on memory: A meta-analysis. Retrieved April 22, 2016 from

Vitelli, R. (2014). Can action video games boost short-term memory? Psychology Today. Retrieved April 22, 2016 from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/media-spotlight/201410/can-action-video-games-boost-short-term-memory