Al-Qaeda: Structure, History, and Terrorist Operations

Naming, Definition, and Origins

Al-Qaeda, which means "Foundation" or "Base" in Arabic, is the general name given to a worldwide or transnational network and alliance of militant Islamic organizations. However, there are some disparities and ambiguities that must be noted in relation to the naming of this organization. The name "al-Qa'ida," while widely recognized in the popular mind, is a designation that the organization does not often use to identify itself.

Furthermore, the origins of the name are disputed in some quarters. Some allege it was coined by the United States government, based on the name of a computer file belonging to Bin Laden that listed contacts he had made at the MAK in the Bait al-Ansar guesthouse during the late 1980s. The name, which also refers to the training camp for militants, has nonetheless become the common designation for the organization.

There are various other names and designations by which the group is known. These include:

al-Qaeda; "the Base"; the Islamic Army; the World Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders; the Islamic Army for the Liberation of the Holy Places; the Usama Bin Laden Network; the Usama Bin Laden Organization; Islamic Salvation Foundation; and the Group for the Preservation of the Holy Sites.

Al-Qaeda is generally viewed as a multinational, loosely affiliated organization. Members of the group reside in various countries and the organization maintains a presence throughout the world. The term "organization" is itself loosely applied, as Al-Qaeda does not subscribe to formal organizational and management conventions. This also relates to the fact that the organization is mysterious and fluid, which increases its threat and makes tracking information about it more difficult. As John Gray states in his study "Beyond Belief: Al-Qaeda's Apocalyptic Brand of Religion": "Al Qaeda is more than just an organization; it is also a process, and its principal resource is its human capital. Al Qaeda's future ability to grow and continue operations depends most strongly on its ability to gather new recruits." (Gray 4)

Geographical Reach, Size, and Membership

The amorphous nature of the organization makes it extremely difficult to offer a conclusive assessment of the group's localization. The best assessment is that it is a worldwide organization known to be active in Afghanistan, Bosnia, Chechnya, Tajikistan, Somalia, Yemen, and Kosovo, among other regions. It also trains members of terrorist organizations from diverse countries such as the Philippines, Algeria, and Eritrea.

In addition to cells throughout the world, the organization has links to Sunni extremist networks. Research suggests that at present the organization is dispersed into smaller groups resident in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East.

Similarly, it is extremely difficult — if not practically impossible — to determine the exact size of an organization of this nature given its undetermined structure. According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, a 2004 report stated that more than 18,000 "potential militants" were scattered around the world, operating in more than 60 countries, who could be recruited by Al-Qaeda. Other estimates put the number of actual members at several thousand, including associates. Al-Qaeda also serves as a focal point or umbrella organization for a worldwide network that includes many Sunni Islamic extremist groups, some members of al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, and the Harakat ul-Mujahidin.

The core membership of the organization consists primarily of Afghan war veterans from across the Muslim world. However, actual membership could include recruits and associates from any country in the world.

Financial resources are obtained from a number of sources, including businesses and contributions from supporters of the cause. It is also alleged that funds are illegally drawn from various Muslim charitable organizations. Efforts by countries such as the United States to reduce these financial assets have hampered the organization's growth to a certain extent. Osama bin Laden also contributed his personal and considerable financial assets to the organization; as the son of an extremely wealthy Saudi family, it is estimated that he inherited approximately $300 million. An essential resource is the ongoing flow of recruits who join for ideological or religious reasons: "Al Qaeda's future ability to grow and continue operations depends most strongly on its ability to gather new recruits." (Gray 4)

Leadership, Chain of Command, and Organizational Structure

Besides Bin Laden, the military leader of al-Qa'ida was allegedly Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who was arrested in Pakistan in 2003. Prior to his arrest, the previous military leader, Mohammed Atef, died in a U.S. bombing raid on Afghanistan in late 2001.

Other alleged senior figures of the organization include: Saif al-Adel; Sulaiman Abu Ghaith; Abu Hafiza; Abu Faraj al-Libbi (arrested in Pakistan, 2005); Abu Mohammed al-Masri; Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (captured in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 2003); Thirwat Salah Shirhata; Abu Musab al-Zarqawi; Ayman al-Zawahri; and Abu Zubaydah (captured in 2002).

Due to the clandestine nature of the organization and its obvious reluctance to make its chain of command publicly known, the actual hierarchy is obscure. However, information from defectors such as Jamal al-Fadl has enabled American authorities to construct an outline of the possible command structure.

Bin Laden served as the emir of al-Qaeda and was advised by a shura council comprising senior members of the group. The Military Committee was responsible for training, weapons acquisition, and planning attacks. The Money/Business Committee oversaw business operations and financial matters; its payroll office paid al-Qaeda members, and a Management Office oversaw money-making enterprises. According to the U.S. 9/11 Commission Report, it is estimated that al-Qaeda required approximately $30,000,000 USD per year to conduct its operations. The Law Committee was responsible for the application of Islamic law as it pertained to courses of action, while the Islamic Study/Fatwa Committee issued religious edicts. The Media Committee was responsible for public relations, though it is believed that this committee eventually ceased to function and that media and public relations responsibilities were delegated to other parts of the organization.

The organization has a networked rather than hierarchical structure, meaning it is decentralized and lacks a conventional top-down chain of command. This enables greater flexibility of action and supports a far-flung network of activity. On the other hand, experts have noted that large-scale operations — such as the September 11 attacks — are extremely difficult to organize within this kind of structure, which is more suitable for small, localized actions.

Some commentators have questioned whether Al-Qaeda can be discussed as an organization in the conventional sense at all, suggesting it is more "virtual" than real. According to the controversial BBC documentary The Power of Nightmares, al-Qaeda is so weakly linked together that it is difficult to say it exists apart from Osama bin Laden and a small clique of close associates.

History and Ideological Development

The origins of Al-Qaeda lie historically with the Afghan war against the Soviets. In practical terms, the organization was established in 1988 by the Saudi militant Osama bin Laden, who used an extensive international network to maintain a loose connection between Muslim extremists in diverse countries.

Al-Qaeda developed from a mujahideen resistance grouping known as the Maktab al-Khadamat (MAK) in the 1980s. Osama bin Laden co-founded MAK along with other leaders, including the Palestinian militant Abdullah Yusuf Azzam. A crucial aspect of this history is that the fight against the Soviet Union was framed not in conventional terms but as a holy war against an aggressor. This drew volunteers and supporters from throughout the Muslim world and fused together Islamic fighters from a wide range of backgrounds, creating the central kernel of what would become the new organization. "Muslims from Algeria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Southeast Asia, and beyond fought side by side, forging relationships and creating a cadre of veterans who shared a powerful life experience, a more global view..." (Jenkins 3)

This experience was bolstered by the eventual victory over the Soviet Union, which strengthened the organization's sense of mission. However, Afghan veterans returning to their home countries were frequently viewed with suspicion by local governments, who regarded them as a political threat. This isolation made them susceptible to new campaigns and ideologies.

Jenkins provides a clear outline of the motivational context that shaped Al-Qaeda after the Afghan resistance:

"There were ample reasons and opportunities to continue the fight: the Gulf War and the consequent arrival of American troops in Saudi Arabia; the continued repression of Islamic challenges to local regimes; armed struggles in Algeria, Egypt, the newly independent Muslim republics of the former Soviet Union, Kashmir, the Philippines, and Bosnia; the forces of globalization that seemed threatening to all local cultures; and the continuing civil war in Afghanistan." (Jenkins)

These initial members subsequently embraced the ideological vision of a pan-Islamic Caliphate spanning the world. Their ideology, simplistically stated, was to overthrow regimes and governments in the region deemed to be essentially non-Islamic in nature. The organization also came to view Western influence as part of the problem, and Westerners and Western interests in Muslim countries — particularly Saudi Arabia — became targets of terrorist attacks. In February 1998, the organization issued a statement asserting that "it was the duty of all Muslims to kill U.S. citizens — civilian or military — and their allies everywhere." The organization also merged with other pro-Islamic and anti-Western groups, including Egyptian Islamic Jihad (al-Jihad), in June 2001.