Black Male College Completion Gap: Key Factors Explained

Introduction

African-Americans constitute a large segment of the American population. In 2015, the total population of the United States was approximately 330.36 million, and the African-American population was 46.28 million—roughly 14% of the total. Data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2016) showed that African-Americans numbered 45.7 million and had increased by 1.3% between 2013 and 2014. Their population is projected to reach 74.5 million by 2060. Despite the size of the Black population in the United States, significant disparities remain between the number of African-American males completing college education and the number of their White counterparts who do so. While a college education can help individuals earn higher salaries, historically there has been a persistent gap in degree completion rates between African-American males and White males across the country.

Several factors contribute to these disparities. Rising college tuition, household income differences, and parents' level of educational attainment all influence the gap between African-American males and their White counterparts in college completion.

This literature review was conducted to answer a central research question and several sub-questions addressing factors that influence why Black males do not complete college at the same rate as their White counterparts. The literature also addresses high school preparedness among African-American males for college, programs and resources that could support African-American males in college, and the effect of masculinity on their academic success.

Factors Influencing College Completion Disparities

This study identifies high college tuition rates as one of the major factors responsible for the disparities between African-American males and their White counterparts in college graduation. In the United States, tuition costs have risen steadily each year. The average cost of attending a public college or university is $35,370 per year, while the average cost at private institutions is $45,370. When transportation and other living expenses are included, the total cost of attendance increases by approximately 10%. Mettler (2014) argues that the cost of attending college in the United States rose by 244% between 1980 and 2011, making it increasingly difficult for African-American families to send their children to college. The author further notes that current tuition levels have driven millions of Americans into debt—federal loan debt exceeds $1 trillion, while private loan debt has reached $200 billion (Naylor, Wooldridge, & Lyles, 2014).

Although the United States spends more than $407 billion annually on higher education, this investment has not translated into broad degree attainment: the country still ranks 12th globally in college degree completion. Furthermore, core ethnic minority groups—including African-American males—remain underrepresented in American colleges and universities despite this substantial public expenditure (Carnevale et al., 2015).

Household Income and Its Impact

Mettler (2014) argues that the majority of African-American households still earn lower incomes than their White counterparts, meaning many cannot afford to finance their own college education or that of their children. Even when African-Americans do attend college, a larger proportion complete their studies at lower-tiered institutions or fail to finish at all. According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2016), only 10% of African-Americans aged 19 and above hold a college degree, 12% hold a graduate degree, and 7% hold doctoral degrees. These figures suggest that fewer African-Americans are positioned to secure high-paying jobs in either the private or public sector (Mettler, 2014).

Spurgeon and Myers (2010) add that while 58% of African-American male high school graduates enroll in college, fewer than 50% of those who enroll ultimately graduate—a rate low enough that female African-Americans now outnumber their male counterparts among Black college graduates. The authors identify several risk factors associated with this gap, including drug and substance abuse, depression, and violence among African-American males (Michael, 2015).

Wyatt-Nichol et al. (2011) contend that income inequality between White and African-American households has contributed to the broader socioeconomic segregation of Black Americans, which in turn constrains college access. In 2012, 81% of college students between the ages of 18 and 29 who enrolled came from top-income families. Data from the National Center for Education Statistics (2016) show that an average of 82% of high-income students who enrolled in college between 2010 and 2015 completed their degrees, compared with only 55% of low-income enrollees during the same period—meaning approximately 45% of low-income students dropped out. Because a large share of African-American college students come from low-income families, this pattern disproportionately affects Black male completion rates.

The income-based degree gap is also stark by race and gender: "In 2015, the percentage of White males age 25 to 29 with a bachelor's degree was twice as high as the percentage of Black males with a bachelor's degree (38% vs. 19%) and almost three times as high as the percentage of Hispanic males with a bachelor's degree (38% vs. 13%)" (Ma, Pender, & Welch, 2016, p. 15).

These disparities vary considerably by state. West Virginia shows the largest gap, with 48% of White males completing college compared with 24% of Black males—a 24-percentage-point difference. Wisconsin follows, with 45% of White males and 22% of Black males completing degrees (see Appendix 1).

Mitchem and Mortenson (2014) argue that students from upper-income families in the United States are nine times more likely to complete college than students from low-income families, underscoring the extent to which financial resources shape educational outcomes. Kimberly et al. (2015) further point out that economic inequalities between Black and White populations mean that many African-Americans do not live in the neighborhoods where colleges and universities are located—areas where housing costs are typically higher. When accommodation costs are added to tuition, the total expense of attending college can become prohibitive for Black male students.

References

Black Voices. (2013). Black graduation rates may depend on "grit" as much as grades, study shows. The Huffington Post, pp. 1–4.

Bryant, R. T. (2015). College preparation for African-American students: Gaps in the high school educational experience. Center for Law and Social Policy.

Camera, L. (2015). Despite progress, graduation gaps between Whites and minorities persist. U.S. News, pp. 2–6.

Carnevale, A. P., Strohl, J., & Gulish, A. (2015). College is just the beginning: Employers' role in the $1.1 trillion postsecondary education and training system. Georgetown University, Center on Education and the Workforce, McCourt School of Public Policy.

CollegeBoard.org. (2017). Completion rates by sector and race/ethnicity. Retrieved from https://trends.collegeboard.org/education-pays/figures-tables/completion-rates-sector-and-race-ethnicity

Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. University of California Press.

Baum, S., Ma, J., & Payea, K. (2013). Education pays 2013: The benefits of higher education for individuals and society. College Board.

Kimberly, A. G., Uma, M. J., Malana, M. J., et al. (2015). Overcoming barriers: Characteristics of Black male freshmen between 1971 and 2004. In Black American males in higher education: Diminishing proportions (pp. 155–179). Emerald Publishing.

Ma, J., Pender, M., & Welch, M. (2016). Education pays 2016: The benefits of higher education for individuals and society. College Board.

McGowan, B. A. (2012). Does race matter: Perceptions of masculinity among Black males at a predominantly White institution. UNC Charlotte.

McGee, E. (2013). Threatened and placed at risk: High achieving African-American males in urban high schools. Urban Review, 45(4), 448–471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-013-0265-2

Mettler, S. (2014). Degrees of inequality: How the politics of higher education sabotaged the American dream. Basic Books.

Mitchem, A., & Mortenson, T. (2014). Indicators of higher education equity in the United States. The Pell Institute. Retrieved from

Michael, J. C. (2015). Invisible men — almost: The diminution of African-American males in higher education. In Black American males in higher education: Diminishing proportions. Emerald Publishing.

Naylor, L. A., Wooldridge, B., & Lyles, A. C. (2014). U.S. public administration programs: Increasing academic achievement by identifying and utilizing student learning styles. Teaching Public Administration, 32(1), 68–79.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Digest of education statistics, 2016. Table 302: Percentage of recent high school completers enrolled in 2-year and 4-year college, by income level, 1975 through 2015. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov

Spurgeon, S. L., & Myers, J. E. (2010). African-American males: Relationships among racial identity, college type, and wellness. Journal of Black Studies, 40(4), 527–543.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2016). Black (African-American) History Month: February 2016. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/newsroom/facts-for-features/2016/cb16-ff01_black_history_month.pdf

Wood, J. L., Harrison, J. D., & Jones, T. K. (2016). Black males' perceptions of the work-college balance: The impact of employment on academic success in the community college. The Journal of Men's Studies, 24(3), 326–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/1060826515624378

Wyatt-Nichol, H., Brown, S. A., & Haynes, W. E. (2011). Social class and socioeconomic status: Relevance and inclusion in MPA/MPP programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 17(2), 187–208.

Appendices

Appendix 1: States with the Widest Black/White Gaps in College Degrees

State — Black — White — Gap

West Virginia — 24% — 48% — 24 points

Wisconsin — 22% — 45% — 23 points

North Carolina — 28% — 50% — 22 points

Connecticut — 29% — 50% — 21 points

Massachusetts — 32% — 53% — 21 points

Minnesota — 27% — 47% — 20 points

Colorado — 34% — 53% — 19 points

Ohio — 24% — 42% — 18 points

Nevada — 24% — 42% — 18 points

California — 33% — 51% — 18 points

Appendix 2: Percentage of Recent High School Completers Enrolled in College, by Income Level (2005–2015)

Source: National Center for Education Statistics (2016), Digest of Education Statistics, Table 302.30.

Year / Total / Low Income / Middle Income / High Income / High–Low Gap / High–Middle Gap

2005 — 68.6% — 53.5% — 65.1% — 81.2% — 29.9 pts — 17.4 pts

2006 — 66.0% — 50.9% — 61.4% — 80.7% — 25.5 pts — 16.7 pts

2007 — 67.2% — 58.4% — 63.3% — 78.2% — 24.9 pts — 16.8 pts

2008 — 68.6% — 55.9% — 65.2% — 81.9% — 25.3 pts — 16.2 pts

2009 — 70.1% — 53.9% — 66.7% — 84.2% — 29.5 pts — 16.6 pts

2010 — 68.1% — 50.7% — 66.7% — 82.2% — 30.4 pts — 16.4 pts

2011 — 68.2% — 53.5% — 66.2% — 82.4% — 30.1 pts — 15.9 pts

2012 — 66.2% — 50.9% — 64.7% — 80.7% — 30.1 pts — 15.5 pts

2013 — 65.9% — 45.5% — 63.8% — 78.5% — 29.2 pts — 16.8 pts

2014 — 68.4% — 57.8% — 63.6% — 83.6% — 24.2 pts — 18.5 pts

2015 — 69.2% — 69.2% — 62.2% — 83.2% — 20.3 pts — 20.5 pts