Crisis Communication Research: Mixed-Method Methodology

Introduction and Research Design Overview

This section outlines the data collection strategy and the sources to be utilized for this project. The highlighted gaps in knowledge will be investigated with the help of two research methods, chosen on the basis that they offer the best chance of answering the research questions. The procedures to be used for analysing results, the limitations of the methods, and ethical considerations are also addressed (Frandsen & Johansen, 2010).

A comprehensive evaluation is necessary in order to capture the sophisticated processes of public relations crisis communication and to provide a broader perspective on the matter. A mixed-method study approach — combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies — will be employed to provide an overview of the subject matter and to generate data for the research questions. Collecting both quantitative and qualitative data will provide comprehensive information to help answer those questions.

Gathering quantitative data will help provide an overview of crisis communication and supply important data for answering five minor research questions concerning methodological trends in past studies, theoretical models, different kinds of emergency communication, use of theories, and number of publications. The qualitative data will help provide insight into the viewpoints and perspectives of experts in the field of communication with regard to research questions on the influence of culture on emergency and crisis communication, the application of different crisis communication strategies in various settings, and stakeholder consideration in those kinds of communications. Furthermore, gathering qualitative data will also provide broader perspectives on the working reality of PR (public relations) practitioners and the importance of academic studies for their practice.

The mixed-method research approach is used for its ability to complement data gathered by one method using another, allowing the collection of more comprehensive information (Collis & Hussey, 2003; Reinard, 2001). In summary, the mixed-method approach will help provide a deeper understanding of crisis communications and will also increase the validity and relevance of the research results. The two main data collection methods to be utilized are in-depth interviews and content analysis (Falkenheimer & Heide, 2010).

Participants and Sampling Strategy

Purposive sampling will be employed since the targeted participants not only fit the criteria of inclusion for the research but have also been involved in previous crisis management and communication initiatives (Forbes-Biggs, 2010). The targeted participants from each site will be invited to join specific focus groups. The inclusion criteria for the research project are as follows: participants must be adults (above eighteen years of age) and must have been involved in crisis management and communication teams in the past.

According to Patton (1990), purposive sampling enables subjects to be chosen if they possess certain qualities that the researcher is looking for. Patton further states that purposive sampling is frequently used in conducting qualitative research. In this case, the targeted individuals must fit the above-mentioned conditions in the inclusion criteria in order to be selected for the study. The inclusion criteria distinguish the chosen individuals from other members of the community. Trochim (2006) describes purposive sampling as a type of non-probability sampling, since it does not involve the random selection of individuals. Purposive sampling therefore allows the exclusion of those who are not relevant to the research.

According to Trochim (2006), purposive sampling is done with a purpose — it helps researchers include only a very specific kind of participant, namely those who have participated in crisis management either as affected individuals or as team members in the crisis management response. Similarly, Greeff (2007, p. 299) explains that participants in purposive sampling are selected because they have particular shared characteristics and because they can relate to the subject to be discussed in the focus group. The individuals chosen for this research will be included because they meet the condition of having been either crisis management officials or members of affected communities, and because their participation in crisis management made them aware of the communication flow.

A provisional list of approximately thirty possible interview participants will be drawn up. The project team will then initiate communications with each individual on the list to request an interview, either in person, by telephone, or via video conferencing. Some interviewees will also be selected to answer survey questions that will be emailed to them. In instances where one or more participants are unreachable or decline to participate, additional participants will be recruited to replace them. Replacement participants will be selected using the same purposive sampling and inclusion criteria described above. The identities of all participants will be kept confidential in order to encourage frank opinions.

Data Collection Methods

Content Analysis

Content analysis has been defined as an adaptable quantitative research instrument that can be used to investigate and analyse texts in both visual and printed formats. The content is first quantified in an organized and repeatable manner using preconceived categories. The two major characteristics of content analysis are that it is systematic and objective. Its systematic nature allows texts and other material to be categorized into predetermined classes, minimizing the possibility of bias. The sequential application of rules in the analysis procedure helps guarantee consistency, meaning that anyone who conducts content analysis on the same material should arrive at the same results.

According to Bryman (2008), the coding procedure is a crucial part of the content analysis process. To ensure that proper coding processes are utilized, clear and accurate coding guidelines should be employed, and the categories used in classification should cover all possible scenarios without overlapping — these aspects are important when devising a coding scheme. To determine challenges and guarantee the reliability of coding, both intra- and inter-coder reliability should be tested after designing the coding scheme (Bryman, 2008).

Despite its many advantages, content analysis has several limitations. First, texts used for content analysis must be evaluated with respect to their credibility, representativeness, and authenticity, since the findings of a content analysis will only be as good as the texts utilized. Second, the emphasis of a content analysis process may lean toward what can be measured rather than what is theoretically important or significant (Bryman, 2008; Collis & Hussey, 2003).

Procedure of Content Analysis

General data on crisis communication studies conducted in New Zealand and Australia will be gathered through content analysis. A total of 33 articles on crisis communication published in various formats — including practitioner and academic publications in both countries over the last decade — will be collected through a computer database search using the keyword "crisis." The sources consulted include the top PR and communication websites and journals such as the Prism journal, the Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal (APPRJ), the Communication Journal of New Zealand (CJNZ), and the Australian Journal of Communication (AJC). Case studies from the PRINZ (Public Relations Institute of New Zealand) and PRIA (Public Relations Institute of Australia) websites, as well as conference papers from the ANZCA (Australian and New Zealand Communication Association), will also be analysed. These sources have been selected because they closely reflect the situation of crisis communication and related issues in both countries and represent the most widely available materials. To view the case studies on the PRINZ and PRIA websites, one must simply sign up for membership and obtain permission from the institutes' current executive directors (Falkenheimer & Heide, 2010; Fediuk, Coombs & Botero, 2010).

If any of the communication journals do not contain sufficient information, or if relevant material on a particular subject area cannot be located, a general database search will be conducted through Ebsco. Ebsco provides access to approximately 6,800 peer-reviewed journals on communications, 1,300 journals on business, 440 journals on communication and mass media, 2,000 journals on applied sciences, 800 journals on philosophy and religion, 400 journals on behavioural sciences, 800 on political sciences, and hundreds of other relevant journals. The keywords "disaster communication," "disaster," and "crisis" will be used to search the database for peer-reviewed articles. Only publications released between 2004 and 2015 will be utilized; publications older than 2004 will be excluded, as information therein may have become obsolete given the strides made in crisis communication during that period (Fediuk et al., 2010; Bryman, 2008).

Interviews

In-depth interviews will be utilized to investigate specific issues in crisis communication from the practitioners' perspective. The benefit of in-depth interviews is that they help gather subjective data from interviewees and capture information on their beliefs, attitudes, values, and feelings (Stewart, 2002). Interviews are qualitative in nature, as they focus on the interviewee's viewpoint in a way that helps address broader research concerns. Interviews are frequently used in qualitative studies and are generally easy to carry out, even though transcription and analysis of results can be time-consuming.

Some researchers suggest that when interviewees become sidetracked or begin to ramble, this should be permitted, as it allows the interviewer to gain insight into the participant's thought processes (Bryman, 2008). The interviewer can then alter or deviate from the predetermined set of questions and ask new questions based on the interviewee's responses, including follow-up questions. Qualitative interviewing will help provide detailed responses that reflect the interviewees' point of reference and personal opinion. The interviews will be conducted in a semi-structured format to give interviewees the freedom to respond as they see fit. Because the investigation focuses on specific issues, semi-structuring the interviews will help produce more relevant answers (Bryman, 2008).

References

Bryman, A. (2008). Social research methods (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Collis, J., & Hussey, R. (2003). Business research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.

Cutler, A. (2004). Methodical failure: The use of case study method by public relations researchers. Public Relations Review, 30(3), 365–375. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2004.05.008

Falkenheimer, J., & Heide, M. (2010). Crisis communicators in change: From plans to improvisations. In W. T. Coombs & S. J. Holladay (Eds.), The handbook of crisis communication (pp. 512–526). Wiley-Blackwell.

Fediuk, T. A., Coombs, W. T., & Botero, I. C. (2010). Exploring crisis from a receiver perspective: Understanding stakeholder reactions during crisis events. In W. T. Coombs & S. J. Holladay (Eds.), The handbook of crisis communication (pp. 636–656). Wiley-Blackwell.

Forbes-Biggs, K. (2010). The Girls in Risk Reduction Leadership (G.I.R.R.L.) Project: Final Thuto Boswa Report to the Dr. Kenneth Kaunda District Municipality. ACDS.

Frandsen, F., & Johansen, W. (2010). Crisis communication, complexity, and the cartoon affair: A case study. In W. T. Coombs & S. J. Holladay (Eds.), The handbook of crisis communication (pp. 426–448). Wiley-Blackwell.

Greeff, M. (2007). Information collection: Interviewing. In A. S. de Vos et al. (Eds.), Research at grass roots. Van Schaik Publishers.

Krueger, R. A. (1988). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Sage.

Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2001). Practical research: Planning and design (7th ed.). Merrill Prentice-Hall.

Morgan, D. L., & Krueger, R. A. (1993). When to use focus groups and why. In D. L. Morgan (Ed.), Successful focus groups. Sage.

Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (6th ed.). Pearson Education.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Sage.

Reinard, J. (2001). Introduction to communication research (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Seon-Kyoung, A., & I-Huei, C. (2010). Crisis communication research in public relations journals: Tracking research trends over thirty years. In W. T. Coombs & S. J. Holladay (Eds.), The handbook of crisis communication (pp. 65–90). Wiley-Blackwell.

Stewart, T. (2002). Principles of research in communication. Allyn and Bacon.

Struwig, F. W., & Stead, G. B. (2007). Planning, designing and reporting research (4th ed.). Pearson Education.

Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). The research methods knowledge base: Non-probability sampling. In N. J. Salkind (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of human development (Vol. 1).