Leadership Styles of Male and Female School Principals

Introduction and Background

The aim of this research is to study the leadership and cognitive styles of teachers and instructors of both genders within the educational system, as well as their preferences for types of leadership in a school principal. The research includes teachers and educators from all levels of the educational system — from grade school through high school — and from all major academic fields offered in public and private schools. Studies conducted in the educational arena indicate that teachers are equally inclined toward different cognitive styles. Teachers prefer a mix of idealist, analytical, and realistic cognitive styles in their principals. Studies also indicate that teachers prefer principals who are both people-oriented and task-oriented in their approach to running the school. In most cases, demographic characteristics — gender, ethnic origin, and education level — do not substantially change a teacher's cognitive style preferences.

Man has always thirsted for education and self-improvement. The ability to think and to reason distinguishes humans as a uniquely reflective species. From the Greeks and Romans in Europe to the Chinese and Indians in the Asian subcontinent, and from the American Indian tribes of North America to the Mayans of South America, all civilizations have displayed formal or informal educational structures that were the building blocks of their respective societies. Over time, many of these societies moved from informal styles of education to more formalized and generalized formats.

Teachers, scholars, and educators have always been afforded respect commensurate with their higher knowledge. Before formalized education, individuals skilled in arts, sciences, or crafts took in apprentices whom they personally trained and supervised until the apprentice had acquired all the knowledge the educator could provide. If the student felt the need for additional education, he or she then moved on to another teacher. Formalized education arose when groups of skilled and knowledgeable individuals gathered together under one roof. It was also determined that students had to be provided with a well-rounded curriculum to enable them to gain knowledge and obtain gainful employment.

Currently, teachers bear the heavy responsibility of educating and developing the young, and preparing them mentally and socially to become successful, contributing members of society. It is a challenging job that goes beyond imparting knowledge. Teachers' personal opinions and behaviors make a great impact on impressionable young minds. How teachers conduct themselves — both with colleagues and with the principal — makes a significant impact on how students view them. New situations and problems are diverse; they evolve and change constantly with each class and generation. The manner in which a teacher can react and deal with these diversities is paramount for the welfare of students.

A study conducted by Ralph Stogdill (1948) indicated that traits by themselves do not define a leader, and that leadership patterns differ depending on the situation. For example, the leadership qualities required of a military officer will differ from those required of a school principal. Leaders can influence both good and bad behaviors in their followers. Winston Churchill and George Washington were great leaders who helped their respective countries during periods of great trial and difficulty (Martin and Romano, 1992).

Schools are social, intellectual, and cultural meeting grounds for both students and teachers. Just like any other organization, schools have their own organizational structure. Within the school setting, the principal is the leader, followed by the vice-principal. Various department heads report either directly to the principal or the vice-principal, and teachers in each department are accountable to their department head. To make a school effective, a principal must constantly engage staff in working toward shared goals — and in doing so, must exercise leadership.

Fred Fiedler was the first to infer the connection between an individual's cognitive styles and that individual's preference for leadership styles (Fiedler, 1967). An individual will choose a leadership style — consciously or unconsciously — that closely reflects his or her general cognitive style. A leader is also more effective when followers share a cognitive style that matches that of the leader. According to Fiedler, the leader communicates with the group and can affect group performance through both verbal and non-verbal behavior (facial expression, body language, and use of gestures). Fiedler presents the classic view that behavior arises from an interaction between personality (needs, motives, drives) and the situation (environment). His research hinges upon (1) an assessment of the leader's motivational structure, and (2) an assessment of how favorable the situation is to achieving those goals.

Cognitions are defined as "any knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment, about oneself, or about one's behavior." Cognitions can be either consonant or dissonant. Dissonant cognition creates an uncomfortable feeling and motivates the individual to try to change the situation. When a discrepancy exists between behavior and belief, dissonance arises. In a school, both consonant and dissonant cognition play a role. Dissonance motivates teachers to try new and innovative teaching styles to improve knowledge transfer to students, while consonant cognition helps ensure that personal conflicts between adults in the school do not undermine the school's functioning.

Purpose of the Study

Men and women display different types of leadership styles. While no specific style is inherently better than others, there are advantages and disadvantages to gender-based leadership styles. This study investigates, in depth, the different factors affecting leadership styles within and between sexes and evaluates their impact on the school as a whole. The study also examines cognitive style and the leadership styles that teachers prefer in a principal. Specifically, the study identifies whether:

(i) There are differences in teachers' preferences for (a) the five cognitive styles and (b) the leadership styles — transformational and transactional.
(ii) There are differences in cognitive styles between male and female teachers.
(iii) There are different management styles among male and female principals.

The Five Cognitive Styles

This study examines how individuals react to data, assess problems, and identify alternatives. The five thinking styles identified by Harrison and Bramson (1982) are:

The Synthesist focuses on essential factors, underlying assumptions, and abstract concepts. Synthesists are integrators who like to find ways to combine entities that appear to have little or no relation to each other into new and creative wholes. They do not generally look for compromises or consensus, but rather for a solution that connects and assimilates contradictory views into a best-fit outcome.

The Idealist focuses on process, values, and aspirations. Idealists take a broad view and tend to be future-oriented, thinking about goals and missions to be accomplished. They are attuned to the needs of others and to the betterment of society. Their thought processes are receptive; they entertain alternative ideas and will seek middle ground so that all parties feel satisfied.

The Pragmatist looks for immediate payoffs and tends to use incremental thinking. Individuals with this style are not always consistent and predictable in their decisions. They experiment, look for other options, and do not feel compelled to conform to traditional values. Their sole objective is very often to accomplish the task in the least possible time.

The Analyst considers method and plans, seeks predictability through ordering data, and attends to concrete details. Analysts approach problems in a careful, logical, methodical way. They collect all data and plan any process before acting. They form firm opinions based on the data collected and tend to analyze and judge all situations carefully.

The Realist points to realities and resources, and considers immediately comprehensible facts. Realists are empiricists — what is "real" to them is what can be felt, smelled, touched, seen, heard, or personally observed. They will strive to change or correct any process or situation they personally feel is not right, and tend to see situations in binary terms of right or wrong.

The Two Types of Leadership

Leaders typically display two types of leadership styles, and the style followed generally depends on a combination of five variables: the leader, the follower, the time, the place, and the circumstances. Men and women describe their leadership performance as either "transactional" or "transformational."

Transactional Leadership: An individual who views job performance as a series of transactions with subordinates — using rewards for exemplary performance or punishments for inadequate performance — uses the transactional form of leadership. Power and influence rest in the hands of the leader, and personal discretion is often the only restraining factor. This style often rates followers on individual discrete performances rather than total overall performance and is more common among men, who are frequently socialized about the importance of power and authority.

Transformational Leadership: Leaders using this style encourage participation and interest among subordinates. They try to convince followers that they need to work together to reach shared goals, and use interpersonal skills, charisma, and personal interactions rather than positional authority. Women generally prefer this style. It requires strong interpersonal skills and demands that followers believe the leader genuinely cares for their well-being.

Trait Approach to Leadership

House and Baetz defined "trait" as a distinctive physical or psychological characteristic of an individual to which his or her behavior may be attributed (Klenke, 1996). Three categories of traits are identified in relation to leaders: (a) Physical traits — height, weight, energy, and appearance; leaders generally display higher energy levels and good physical presentation. (b) Mental abilities — intelligence and aptitude; strong analytical and logical skills have helped leaders make sound decisions. (c) Personality traits — aggressiveness, self-confidence, and emotional control; effective leaders are generally very self-confident and display high levels of determination.

People-Oriented and Task-Oriented Leadership Styles

In this study, leadership style refers to a particular behavior emphasized by the leader to motivate his or her group to accomplish eventual ends (Hanson, 1979). Most types of leadership style are based on two broad dimensions: people-oriented and task-oriented.

The people-oriented style emphasizes the human aspects and interpersonal relationships. Leaders who are people-oriented have strong concern for human relations, try to maintain friendly and supportive relations with followers, open channels of communication, and delegate to give subordinates opportunities to use their potential. They view people as the best asset the organization may have (Hersey and Blanchard, 1974).

The task-oriented style emphasizes the technical or task aspects of the job and is concerned mainly with accomplishing tasks. Leaders who are task-oriented focus on the means to achieve group goals. Their behaviors reflect their interest in completing assignments, making decisions, and evaluating performance. These types of leaders may not always demonstrate concern for the individual development of others unless it is directly tied to the task at hand.