Leadership Styles of Male and Female School Principals

Introduction and Background

The aim of this research is to study the leadership and cognitive styles of teachers and instructors of both genders within the educational system, as well as their preferences for types of leadership in a school principal. The research includes teachers and educators from all levels of the educational system — from grade school through high school — and from all major academic fields offered in public and private schools. Studies conducted in the educational arena indicate that teachers are equally inclined toward different cognitive styles. Teachers prefer a mix of idealist, analytical, and realistic cognitive styles in their principals. Studies also indicate that teachers prefer principals who are both people-oriented and task-oriented in their approach to running the school. In most cases, demographic characteristics — gender, ethnic origin, and education level — do not substantially change a teacher's cognitive style preferences.

Man has always thirsted for education and self-improvement. The ability to think and to reason distinguishes humans as a uniquely reflective species. From the Greeks and Romans in Europe to the Chinese and Indians in the Asian subcontinent, and from the American Indian tribes of North America to the Mayans of South America, all civilizations have displayed formal or informal educational structures that were the building blocks of their respective societies. Over time, many of these societies moved from informal styles of education to more formalized and generalized formats.

Teachers, scholars, and educators have always been afforded respect commensurate with their higher knowledge. Before formalized education, individuals skilled in arts, sciences, or crafts took in apprentices whom they personally trained and supervised until the apprentice had acquired all the knowledge the educator could provide. If the student felt the need for additional education, he or she then moved on to another teacher. Formalized education arose when groups of skilled and knowledgeable individuals gathered together under one roof. It was also determined that students had to be provided with a well-rounded curriculum to enable them to gain knowledge and obtain gainful employment.

Currently, teachers bear the heavy responsibility of educating and developing the young, and preparing them mentally and socially to become successful, contributing members of society. It is a challenging job that goes beyond imparting knowledge. Teachers' personal opinions and behaviors make a great impact on impressionable young minds. How teachers conduct themselves — both with colleagues and with the principal — makes a significant impact on how students view them. New situations and problems are diverse; they evolve and change constantly with each class and generation. The manner in which a teacher can react and deal with these diversities is paramount for the welfare of students.

A study conducted by Ralph Stogdill (1948) indicated that traits by themselves do not define a leader, and that leadership patterns differ depending on the situation. For example, the leadership qualities required of a military officer will differ from those required of a school principal. Leaders can influence both good and bad behaviors in their followers. Winston Churchill and George Washington were great leaders who helped their respective countries during periods of great trial and difficulty (Martin and Romano, 1992).

Schools are social, intellectual, and cultural meeting grounds for both students and teachers. Just like any other organization, schools have their own organizational structure. Within the school setting, the principal is the leader, followed by the vice-principal. Various department heads report either directly to the principal or the vice-principal, and teachers in each department are accountable to their department head. To make a school effective, a principal must constantly engage staff in working toward shared goals — and in doing so, must exercise leadership.

Fred Fiedler was the first to infer the connection between an individual's cognitive styles and that individual's preference for leadership styles (Fiedler, 1967). An individual will choose a leadership style — consciously or unconsciously — that closely reflects his or her general cognitive style. A leader is also more effective when followers share a cognitive style that matches that of the leader. According to Fiedler, the leader communicates with the group and can affect group performance through both verbal and non-verbal behavior (facial expression, body language, and use of gestures). Fiedler presents the classic view that behavior arises from an interaction between personality (needs, motives, drives) and the situation (environment). His research hinges upon (1) an assessment of the leader's motivational structure, and (2) an assessment of how favorable the situation is to achieving those goals.

Cognitions are defined as "any knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment, about oneself, or about one's behavior." Cognitions can be either consonant or dissonant. Dissonant cognition creates an uncomfortable feeling and motivates the individual to try to change the situation. When a discrepancy exists between behavior and belief, dissonance arises. In a school, both consonant and dissonant cognition play a role. Dissonance motivates teachers to try new and innovative teaching styles to improve knowledge transfer to students, while consonant cognition helps ensure that personal conflicts between adults in the school do not undermine the school's functioning.

Men and women display different types of leadership styles. While no specific style is inherently better than others, there are advantages and disadvantages to gender-based leadership styles. This study investigates, in depth, the different factors affecting leadership styles within and between sexes and evaluates their impact on the school as a whole. The study also examines cognitive style and the leadership styles that teachers prefer in a principal. Specifically, the study identifies whether:

(i) There are differences in teachers' preferences for (a) the five cognitive styles and (b) the leadership styles — transformational and transactional.
(ii) There are differences in cognitive styles between male and female teachers.
(iii) There are different management styles among male and female principals.

This study examines how individuals react to data, assess problems, and identify alternatives. The five thinking styles identified by Harrison and Bramson (1982) are:

The Synthesist focuses on essential factors, underlying assumptions, and abstract concepts. Synthesists are integrators who like to find ways to combine entities that appear to have little or no relation to each other into new and creative wholes. They do not generally look for compromises or consensus, but rather for a solution that connects and assimilates contradictory views into a best-fit outcome.

The Idealist focuses on process, values, and aspirations. Idealists take a broad view and tend to be future-oriented, thinking about goals and missions to be accomplished. They are attuned to the needs of others and to the betterment of society. Their thought processes are receptive; they entertain alternative ideas and will seek middle ground so that all parties feel satisfied.

The Pragmatist looks for immediate payoffs and tends to use incremental thinking. Individuals with this style are not always consistent and predictable in their decisions. They experiment, look for other options, and do not feel compelled to conform to traditional values. Their sole objective is very often to accomplish the task in the least possible time.

The Analyst considers method and plans, seeks predictability through ordering data, and attends to concrete details. Analysts approach problems in a careful, logical, methodical way. They collect all data and plan any process before acting. They form firm opinions based on the data collected and tend to analyze and judge all situations carefully.

The Realist points to realities and resources, and considers immediately comprehensible facts. Realists are empiricists — what is "real" to them is what can be felt, smelled, touched, seen, heard, or personally observed. They will strive to change or correct any process or situation they personally feel is not right, and tend to see situations in binary terms of right or wrong.

Leaders typically display two types of leadership styles, and the style followed generally depends on a combination of five variables: the leader, the follower, the time, the place, and the circumstances. Men and women describe their leadership performance as either "transactional" or "transformational."

Transactional Leadership: An individual who views job performance as a series of transactions with subordinates — using rewards for exemplary performance or punishments for inadequate performance — uses the transactional form of leadership. Power and influence rest in the hands of the leader, and personal discretion is often the only restraining factor. This style often rates followers on individual discrete performances rather than total overall performance and is more common among men, who are frequently socialized about the importance of power and authority.

Transformational Leadership: Leaders using this style encourage participation and interest among subordinates. They try to convince followers that they need to work together to reach shared goals, and use interpersonal skills, charisma, and personal interactions rather than positional authority. Women generally prefer this style. It requires strong interpersonal skills and demands that followers believe the leader genuinely cares for their well-being.

House and Baetz defined "trait" as a distinctive physical or psychological characteristic of an individual to which his or her behavior may be attributed (Klenke, 1996). Three categories of traits are identified in relation to leaders: (a) Physical traits — height, weight, energy, and appearance; leaders generally display higher energy levels and good physical presentation. (b) Mental abilities — intelligence and aptitude; strong analytical and logical skills have helped leaders make sound decisions. (c) Personality traits — aggressiveness, self-confidence, and emotional control; effective leaders are generally very self-confident and display high levels of determination.

In this study, leadership style refers to a particular behavior emphasized by the leader to motivate his or her group to accomplish eventual ends (Hanson, 1979). Most types of leadership style are based on two broad dimensions: people-oriented and task-oriented.

The people-oriented style emphasizes the human aspects and interpersonal relationships. Leaders who are people-oriented have strong concern for human relations, try to maintain friendly and supportive relations with followers, open channels of communication, and delegate to give subordinates opportunities to use their potential. They view people as the best asset the organization may have (Hersey and Blanchard, 1974).

The task-oriented style emphasizes the technical or task aspects of the job and is concerned mainly with accomplishing tasks. Leaders who are task-oriented focus on the means to achieve group goals. Their behaviors reflect their interest in completing assignments, making decisions, and evaluating performance. These types of leaders may not always demonstrate concern for the individual development of others unless it is directly tied to the task at hand.

Cognitive Styles and Their Role in Leadership

There is a constant debate: "Are leaders born or are leaders made?" Leadership skills can be developed — the qualities required in a leader can be learned. Bernard M. Bass states, "Leadership is one of the world's oldest preoccupations" (Wren, 1995). When individuals know and understand both their strengths and weaknesses, their effectiveness as leaders is greater. The leadership quality most desired is the ability to have a vision and a dream; no leader will have followers if those followers do not believe in the leader's mission. Strong leaders also have a helpful and thoughtful personality, and they are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses.

Napoleon Hill, author of Think and Grow Rich, stated: "The most powerful instrument we have in our hand is the power of our mind" (Hill, 2001). He further elaborated that man can create nothing that he has not first conceived as a thought. Thoughts can be incredibly powerful. If an individual cannot believe that he or she can succeed, they will most likely not achieve their goals. Goals should be realistic and attainable, though they may require effort and determination. Honesty, integrity, and common courtesies — being polite, decent, and well-mannered — can help a leader set an example for the rest of the team.

Change is normal and one of the certainties of life. How an individual relates to change determines much of the success that individual can achieve (Mukherjee and Mukherjee, 2001). Fallbacks, whenever necessary, should be used as opportunities to step back and review the plans and goals of the organization. Often a leader may lose perspective due to constant contact with the situation at hand; stepping back and evaluating the overall picture can be invaluable.

Leadership qualities required of school principals are not fundamentally different from those required of corporate and business leaders. The principal, however, shoulders additional responsibility to act with honesty and integrity, as he or she is often held to a higher moral and ethical standard. Younger students need good role models. Teachers and principals must maintain a good working relationship if they want to promote higher levels of education and stability in a school; too many conflicts between teachers and principals result in students suffering both educationally and socially.

Personality development, research, and analysis have become increasingly important in the workplace and in society. Cognitive psychologists refer to information-processing habits representing people's dominant or preferred modes of perceiving, thinking, remembering, and problem-solving as "cognitive style" (Globerson and Zelnicker, 1989). Cognitive style includes things that involve mental activity. Cognitive psychologists look at it from the perceptual point of view, while social scientists look at it as the way people react to problems and to each other.

Psychologists maintain that perceptual, cognitive, personality, and social interactions are all affected by the same set of processes that determine how a person approaches the world. The Organizational Culture Inventory (OCI) identifies twelve cultural norms in a circular graph pattern — from Self-Actualization (12 o'clock) through Humanistic Actualization, Affiliate, Approval, Conventional, Dependent, Avoidance, Oppositional, Power, Competitive, Perfectionist, and Achievement (11 o'clock). This wheel illustrates that some people are perfectionists whereas others are more concerned with the overall picture, and that individuals vary widely in how carefully they inspect problems before responding.

Psychologists have identified at least nine cognitive styles (Rebok, 1987). Two of the most extensively studied are the field dependence–field independence style and the reflective–impulsive style.

Field Dependent/Field Independent Style: Field-dependent individuals are easily influenced by surrounding contextual cues and generally defer to another opinion before making decisions. Field-independent individuals are able to function independently, formulate their own ideas, and rely more on their own judgment and past experiences. The field-independent style is associated with an autonomous manner in interpersonal relationships, while field-dependent individuals are more likely to rely on others, especially in ambiguous situations (Galotti, 1994).

Reflective–Impulsive Styles: Reflective individuals delay making decisions until they have evaluated all alternatives and considered both long-term and short-term consequences. Individuals who respond quickly before considering all alternatives and who tend to make careless errors are described as impulsive; they are more interested in arriving at a decision than in investigating all the parameters affecting the problem.

Derived from Jung's personality theory are four dichotomous pairs of cognitive styles (Bridges, 1992):

The Sensing–Intuition Personality: Sensing personality types work well when they know and understand all the facts. They are consistent in their decision-making, prefer standardized methods, and are patient and precise. They never try to "rock the boat" and examine all avenues before embarking on change. Intuition-type personalities tend to "shoot from the hip," making decisions without evaluating all the facts. They show resistance toward following procedures but may occasionally discover new ways of doing things that no one else had thought of before (Berens and Nardi, 1999).

The Thinking–Feeling Personality: Individuals who display keen logical and analytical decision-making are classified as thinking types. They do not overtly display emotions and tend to offer analytical solutions to emotional problems. People with feeling personalities base judgments on subjective values, are aware of others' feelings, are sympathetic, and enjoy pleasing people. They are very people-oriented and will look after the welfare of those around them.

The Perceiving–Judging Personality: Judging personalities are structured and prefer a planned and orderly way of life. They get stressed if a process takes too long. Perceiving people are flexible and spontaneous, uncomfortable with fixed patterns or structures, and more interested in obtaining and weighing data rather than rendering quick decisions. They feel stressed if pushed to decide too quickly (Sundstrom, Koenigs, and Huet-Cox, 1996).

The Introverts–Extroverts Personality: Introverts relate more easily to the inner world of ideas, prefer quiet for concentration, and tend to dislike sweeping statements. Extroverts relate more easily to the outer world of people, prefer variety and action, and may be impatient or act quickly without thinking. An extrovert has "tendencies to prefer oral to written communication, action to reflection, interaction to concentration, and breadth of relationship to depth" (Wallace and Simpson, 1991). The instrument for measuring these classifications is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers, 1962).

Harrison and Bramson (1977; 1982) classified cognitive styles into five different thinking styles — synthesist, idealist, pragmatist, analyst, and realist — by which individuals assess problems and arrive at decisions. They developed the Inquiry Mode Questionnaire to measure these cognitive styles, using five responses for each of eighteen hypothetical situations, which respondents rank on a scale of one to five. The scores are summed over all eighteen situations.

Thomas and Kilmann (Blake, Shepherd, and Mouton, 1964) identified five styles related to how individuals react to conflicts: competing, accommodating, avoiding, collaborating, and compromising. An individual with a competitive style pursues personal aims without regard for others impacted by the decision. An accommodating style prioritizes the needs of others above one's own to avoid conflict. An avoiding style does not aggressively pursue concerns or address conflict at all. A collaborating style works with others to find solutions satisfying all parties. A compromising style seeks expedient, mutually acceptable solutions that partially satisfy both parties.

Ideal Leadership Qualities and Classification of Leadership Styles

Open, communicative, curious, hard-working, academically qualified, enthusiastic, energetic, friendly, confident, articulate, and willing to learn — these are among the qualities most often used to describe a leader. The ideal profile for a leader is often defined internally by members of the organization who understand what is needed to succeed in the mission. Success also requires passion. The leader must believe passionately in what is being done and be able to motivate followers to do the same. Creativity, independent thinking, persistence, and personal conviction are all critical.

The perseverance and determination displayed by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill during the Second World War served as a morale booster for his countrymen. His famous speech near Dunkirk in May 1940 — "we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender" — was delivered at a time when British, Belgian, and French armies were nearly surrounded and the civilian population was enduring extensive air raids. Churchill was able to renew the patriotic fervor of the people, and his contribution to the Allied victory will not be forgotten. No individual is perfect, but a true leader is able to lead when it counts most. Plato felt that developing a philosopher-king who would exercise absolute power with wisdom, compassion, and restraint was key to ideal leadership in society (Gla.AC.UK, 2003).

Harrison and Bramson (1982) defined five ideal types of leadership observed in individuals:

The Synthesist Leader — The "Dialectic" Leader: Synthesists tend to appear challenging, skeptical, or satirically amused. They like playing devil's advocate and enjoy conflicts and arguments for the love of discussion. They believe conflicts can generate creative thinking and innovations. They operate on a thesis–antithesis base, where thesis defines the accepted knowledge and antithesis is the new and untested. They provoke debate, observe reactions, and speculate by putting forward new and controversial ideas. They force their followers to look at a problem from all viewpoints, honestly believing that followers are better served if they can evaluate all options and reach their own conclusions. They can, however, torment non-synthesist individuals by constantly provoking new ideas and making people feel off balance.

The Idealist Leader — The "Holistic" Leader: Idealists respond attentively and receptively. They tend to avoid conflicts, follow a holistic approach to leadership, and believe that no situation exists in isolation. They steer others toward satisfying the overall goal rather than individual ambitions. Leaders following this style think long-term and plan accordingly. They are very good listeners and highly attuned to people and their feelings, though they are not always keen on data review. Their people skills make them very approachable and trusted. If used in the right proportions, this type of leadership can be very effective.

The Pragmatist Leader — The "Tactician" Leader: Pragmatists often display good humor and quickness to agree with others' ideas. They do not shy away from conflict but neither do they enjoy it. They believe brainstorming is essential and will do whatever it takes to ensure that operations are performed in a timely manner. They can be impulsive and may solve problems in the short-term without offering long-term solutions. The pragmatist leader is a good tactician and seldom gets caught without an alternative "Plan B." They understand their audiences and know how to package proposals to make them persuasive.

The Analyst Leader — The "Logical" Leader: Analysts tend to appear cool, studious, and perhaps distant. They follow a traditional and logical approach to any situation, rely heavily on data and facts, and are firm believers in rules and regulations. Their high ability to focus and break complex data into understandable and logical processes makes them a valuable choice in highly scientific and critical situations. They systematically compartmentalize and evaluate situations at the component level and maintain good records and documentation. They generally do not possess strong "people skills" and are often out of touch in personal relations with followers.

The Realist Leader — The "Firm" Leader: Realists tend to have a direct, forceful, frank appearance — not necessarily aggressive, but sometimes that too. They are no-nonsense people who rely on instinct and empirical data. Once they understand the goal, they set up a course of action and plan to achieve it. Unlike the analyst, who is primarily a "data" person, the realist uses facts as important inputs rather than the start and end of decision-making. Realists like to simplify things, have a good idea of their limitations, and will not hesitate to bring in outside expert help when required. Their main strength lies in setting clear, near-term objectives.

Combination Leadership Types: It is frequently observed that leaders display a combination of the five basic types and are generally not purists in following any one style. Commonly observed two-style combinations include the idealist–analyst, the analyst–realist, the synthesist–idealist, the idealist–realist, the pragmatist–realist, and others. In many cases, leaders also display a combination of three styles depending on the situation. The trait approach implies that leaders are born rather than made, whereas the behavioral approach holds that effective leadership behavior can be identified and learned by others (Allen F. Harrison and Bramson, 2002).

Leaders carry out their roles in a wide variety of styles — autocratic, democratic, participatory, laissez-faire, and others. Leadership style often depends on the situation and the life cycle of the organization. Six of the common classifications are discussed below.

The Ohio State Leadership Styles: Ohio State University conducted an array of leadership studies in the early 1950s (Ubben and Hughes, 1992). Researchers identified two dimensions: Consideration (e.g., being approachable, accepting suggestions, looking out for subordinate welfare) and Initiating Structure (e.g., criticizing unsatisfactory work, setting performance standards, offering new approaches). Some leaders are high in both dimensions; others are low in one or both.

The Michigan Leadership Styles: Researchers at the University of Michigan identified two dimensions of leadership: employee-oriented and production-oriented (Robbins and Mukherji, 1990). Employee-oriented leaders emphasize interpersonal relations and take a personal interest in subordinates' needs. Production-oriented leaders emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job and regard group members primarily as means to completing tasks.

The Managerial Grid: Blake and co-workers (Blake, Shepherd, and Mouton, 1964) proposed a two-dimensional Managerial Grid based on concern for people and concern for production, corresponding to the Ohio State and Michigan dimensions. The grid has nine possible positions along each axis, creating eighty-one different positions into which a leader's style may fall.

Tannenbaum–Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behavior: Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt's 1957 Harvard Business Review article "How to Choose a Leadership Pattern" was one of the most significant early situational approaches to leadership. They proposed a continuum of leader behavior between two extremes: autocratic and democratic. Autocratic leaders make most decisions themselves; democratic leaders focus on the welfare of followers and have a strong need to develop and empower their teams; laissez-faire leaders are loose and permissive, letting followers do as they choose (Tannenbaum and Smith, 1957).

Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Styles: Hersey and Blanchard defined four types of leadership styles based on the interaction between the leader and others (Ubben and Hughes, 1992): Telling (the leader defines roles and supervises all tasks), Selling (the leader provides both directive and supportive behavior), Participating (the leader and followers share decision-making, with the leader acting as facilitator), and Delegating (the leader provides little or no direction or support to an experienced group).

Reddin's Classification of Leadership Styles: Reddin identified four basic leadership styles essentially similar to those in the Managerial Grid but built in the concept that different situations require different styles, and that a style's effectiveness depends upon the situation in which it is used (Reddin, 1977).

Leadership is also seen as a power relation between two or more people. Raven and French define leadership in terms of differential power relationships among group members (Yukl and Falbe, 1991). Reward power refers to the leader's capacity to reward followers for good work. Coercive power refers to the leader's power to punish followers for shortcomings — through criticism, withholding increments, or withholding confirmation. Legitimate power derives from the leader's position in the organization. Expert power comes from the leader's knowledge and expertise. Referent power depends upon the degree to which subordinates admire, identify with, and wish to emulate the leader. The more sources of power a leader possesses, the more likely that he or she will successfully influence subordinates. However, a leader's potential power very much depends on personal characteristics and style.

Fidler further notes that leadership is associated with formulating and communicating a strategy based on a vision of a better future and inspiring followers to strive toward it. Unlike management — assigned to supportive roles such as routine planning and systematic implementation — active leadership is likely to be concerned with exceptional situations where new activities and new ways of working are being contemplated (Fidler, 1997).

Conclusion

Most recent studies indicate that teachers desire the same qualities in both male and female principals. There is a general preference for people-oriented principals rather than task-oriented principals. Individuals who are good communicators, good listeners, and able to solve problems efficiently make better choices as leaders. Power sharing and giving credit where it is due are also greatly appreciated within school organizations. Men still control the vast majority of key leadership positions.

It is, however, observed that women do not share the same power and authority as their male counterparts. When women do "men's" work, they often do so in less desirable locations, with more responsibility, and generally for lower pay.

The role of principals is particularly important because they are not only accountable for the school's academic performance, but ultimately also for the realization of the country's educational vision. If principals fail to carry out their roles effectively, they will not be able to motivate teachers or exploit their knowledge and experiences, nor will they be able to motivate students to excel in academic pursuits. In short, they will have failed as instructional leaders, and schools will have failed to achieve their goals.

The percentage of women as schoolteachers has historically been high and will continue to be high. School systems around the country are also changing — increasingly relying on temporary staff and those not specializing in the subjects they teach. This situation has increased job-related stress for the teaching staff and has made the task more difficult for principals and school administrators. Recruitment and training of teachers is also becoming increasingly difficult due to relatively low salaries and challenging work environments.

Teachers worldwide are undervalued, underpaid, and often left to manage on their own once trained. Those caring for and teaching the youngest children get paid the least, reflecting a societal bias toward expecting women to volunteer their labor as caregivers. Many teachers must seek a second or even a third job to sustain their families, and many schools hire volunteer and part-time teachers.

All these variables, when combined with the cognitive and leadership styles practiced in schools, make management of schools a difficult and demanding task. Principals face the same problems teachers experience and often have few ready solutions. Limited resources combined with high levels of government intervention and media attention also complicate administrative work. Although schools have budgets and challenges comparable to those of medium-sized companies, schools cannot be run like businesses. Male and female management styles may differ, but both genders face the same problems and difficulties. Management style and application ultimately depend on the quality of experience each individual has and the ability of that individual to utilize their skills effectively.

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