Political Socialization: How We Learn Our Political Beliefs

Introduction

Almost every individual in today's society holds a set of political beliefs or values, but most of us rarely pause to consider why we hold such beliefs or how we acquired them. Are they our own ideas, or have we been influenced by others? Most political scientists are of the opinion that people are not born with political ideas, nor do we manufacture them on our own — we learn them through a process called political socialization. This paper explores how that process works, examines its background, discusses its importance in today's society, identifies the key factors that influence it, and evaluates their relative significance.

Background and Origins

The concept of political socialization can be traced as far back as Plato's philosophical works, such as The Republic, in which he explores ways to develop an individual's character so that he or she becomes a useful member of an ideal society. Subsequent theories by Enlightenment philosophers — including the Englishman John Locke — reinforce the contention that the human mind has no innate ideas (that is, people are not born with political ideas) and that all our ideas come from experience. In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), Locke argued that the human mind was like a tabula rasa (blank slate), and that without experience, no characters are written on the "tablets" of the mind.

The subject of political socialization is, nonetheless, a relatively new one. It became a popular topic of interest among sociologists, psychologists, educators, and political scientists in the 1950s, and research on the subject peaked in the 1960s and 1970s. Although scholarly interest continues, enthusiasm has subsided to an extent, with some critics dismissing the field as a "political fad" (Peng, qtd. in Simon and Merrill).

What Is Political Socialization?

Political socialization can be defined as the process through which individuals acquire the information, beliefs, attitudes, and values that help them understand the workings of a political system, and through which they adopt some of those beliefs, attitudes, and values as their own. The term can also be described as "a developmental process through which the citizen matures politically" (Dawson and Prewitt, p. 17), or more simply as the process by which individuals acquire their political beliefs and attitudes.

Importance of Political Socialization

The importance of this process lies in the fact that the beliefs and values of the people are the basis of a society's political culture, and such culture defines the parameters of political life and governmental action. Since most people acquire the beliefs and attitudes of the society in which they live, political socialization can also be viewed in a negative light — as an agent of conformity. One writer has termed the process as "facilitating the maintenance of the status quo by making people love the system under which they are born" (Sigel, 1969, p. 1). The majority of political scientists, however, view the politicization of the individual as an essentially positive process.

Whether one views the process negatively or positively, few can deny that the acquisition of political beliefs — beliefs that determine the direction of political and governmental action in a society — is an important matter. Active participation of citizens in the polity is part of their civic duty, and it can only come about through a well-developed political consciousness shaped by socialization.

Factors Influencing Political Socialization

A number of factors directly or indirectly influence our political beliefs. An examination of these factors illustrates why political socialization is fundamentally a learning process.

1. Family

The first and foremost influence on the political orientation of a child comes from the family. Just as a young child learns to speak and interpret the language he or she is exposed to at an early age — and remains most proficient in throughout life — the political orientation acquired from one's family tends to exert a lasting influence at all stages of life. How many people born into a family of Christians or Muslims change their religion at a later stage? Very few. Similarly, the political attitudes we learn from family members, particularly our parents, tend to stay with us throughout our lives. Families, then, are the primary agent in molding lifelong habits.

In the field of political socialization, however, some researchers have downplayed the importance of early childhood political learning. For example, Niemi and Hepburn attribute the relative decline of interest in political socialization research after the 1970s to the "misplaced" importance accorded to childhood political socialization. The authors argue: "To assume that what happened early in life was fully determinative of later thinking and behavior was a gross oversimplification" (Niemi and Hepburn, p. 14). They contend that the period from approximately age fourteen through the mid-twenties — adolescence and early adulthood — deserves far more attention from political scientists interested in this process. This argument highlights the fact that the learning process in political maturity continues throughout one's life, and that political opinions formed in early life are not fixed. Family's influence as an important starting point in one's political learning process is, nonetheless, an acknowledged fact.

2. Schools

After the initial pre-school influence of the immediate family, a child in most societies spends a large portion of his or her life in school. It is inevitable, therefore, that schools — apart from providing basic academic learning — prove to be powerful opinion shapers. In democratic countries such as the United States, standard school curricula include introductions to political processes such as elections and voting. Children learn about American history and the basic workings of government at an early age. The bedrock of American political culture is the premise that government exists to protect the "inalienable rights" of its citizens and derives its power from the people. This culture of democracy is instilled in children through their school courses, making most of them aware of what to expect from government well before adulthood.

The importance of schools as an agent for political socialization has been heightened by the erosion of traditional family and community ties in recent times, requiring schools to take over some of the functions once performed by families and local communities. In the United States, a general decline of trust in elected officials since the Watergate scandal has been observed. This has led to diminished interest in political involvement among citizens, partly reflected in falling voter turnouts in elections, including presidential elections. This lack of interest inevitably affects children too — and schools can play an important role in promoting civic awareness by introducing more civic education courses. Most research on political socialization indicates that U.S. schools have been more successful in imparting factual information to students than in actively shaping political attitudes. Some researchers feel that political attitudes in school students can be positively influenced if critical thinking and more open discussion of controversial issues are encouraged in the classroom (Hahn, para. 13).

3. Peer Groups

Apart from family and schools, peer groups play an important role in transmitting political values to young people. The influence of peer groups in the process of political socialization is most pronounced when an issue directly affects the youth. A pertinent example is the issue of the Vietnam War during the 1960s. Young people were among the most active participants in the anti-war movement since they were directly affected — many were conscripted to fight in a war that was claiming a large number of lives. It is generally agreed, however, that youthful peer groups exert greater influence on lifestyle and dress than on political beliefs.

4. Mass Media

The influence of mass media on political socialization has increased tremendously over the last few decades. Early research in political socialization conducted in the 1960s did not consider the influence of mass media on political attitudes to be significant. This remained the accepted view until relatively recently. It is now widely acknowledged that the mass media — especially electronic media and television — shape the political perceptions of not only the youth but also the mature population to a large extent. This is hardly surprising given that the average weekly television viewing time in American households increased from 43 hours in the early 1970s to 50 hours by the mid-1990s, and research indicates that American children spend an average of 28 hours a week watching television (Hepburn, p. 72).

The rising influence of mass media is also viewed with deep concern by many observers. Ben Bagdikian, in his book The Media Monopoly, is particularly critical of the monopolistic control that large corporations and advertisers exercise over the American mass media, arguing that mass media exerts a disproportionate and unhealthy influence on the political views of the American public. Such concern nonetheless acknowledges that mass media is an important vehicle for the political socialization of the public.

Conclusion

Political socialization refers to the political beliefs and values of people in a society. Though a relatively new branch of political science and sociology, it has its roots in the views of ancient philosophers such as Plato. As this essay has shown, people develop their political orientation through a lifetime of learning experience, and there is no evidence to suggest that political tendencies are inborn — either in individuals or in groups. The process of political socialization begins at an early age, but the most receptive period for shaping political views is the years from approximately age fourteen through the mid-twenties. Family, school, peer groups, and the mass media are the primary influences that determine the political socialization of people in modern society. Some groups of people do exhibit common views on certain political issues, but this is due to their common interests or to the expectations society places on their behavior — not to any innate tendency peculiar to the group. We can, therefore, safely conclude that people are not born with political ideas, nor do they manufacture them independently — we learn them through a process called political socialization.

Works Cited

Dawson, R. E., and K. Prewitt. Political Socialization. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1977.

Hahn, Carole L. "Civic Education in the U.S.: Recent Trends and Future Challenges." Basic Education: A Journal of Teaching and the Liberal Arts. 47.5 (July/August 2003).

Hepburn, Mary A. "The Power of the Electronic Media in the Socialization of Young Americans: Implications for Social Studies Education." The Social Studies. 89.2 (Mar/Apr 1998): 71–77.

Hepburn, Mary A., and Richard G. Niemi. "The Rebirth of Political Socialization." Perspectives on Political Science. 24.1 (1995): 13–18.

Sigel, Roberta S. "New Directions for Political Socialization Research: Thoughts and Suggestions." Perspectives on Political Science. 24.1 (1995): 17+.

Simon, James, and Bruce D. Merrill. "Political Socialization in the Classroom Revisited: The Kids Voting Program." The Social Science Journal. 35.1 (Jan 1998): 29–43.

Trevor, Margaret C. "Political Socialization, Party Identification, and the Gender Gap." Public Opinion Quarterly. 63.1 (Spring 1999): 62–63.