Sexual Harassment, Glass Ceiling & Women's Psychological Impact

Introduction: Gender Roles and Workplace Inequality

Gender roles and social expectations have undergone a tremendous upheaval in the past fifty years in the United States. Previously, gender roles were strictly defined and women were expected to perform certain traditional roles. Stepping outside of those roles was socially forbidden. Women were expected to remain in the home caring for children, while men worked outside the home providing for the family. During World War II, these roles began to change. Women had to work in factories and other jobs because there were not enough men to fill those positions. Women experienced a newfound freedom, as they now had their own income and a source of independence. Women were no longer willing to accept their traditional roles — they demanded a choice in their own destiny.

However, women were still only allowed to hold certain jobs and work in certain professions. The workplace remained a hostile environment for women, and this was especially true for women of different ethnic backgrounds. On the job, they faced sexual harassment. The "glass ceiling" forced them to perform the same jobs as men but for less pay, and they were not afforded the same opportunities for advancement. This was especially true for culturally diverse women. Affirmative Action was designed to alleviate many of these problems: it mandated equal pay for equal work and theoretically eliminated sexual harassment and the glass ceiling in the workplace. However, one cannot legislate away cultural traditions, and although these practices are prohibited, they remain a reality for culturally diverse women in today's workplace. This paper explores the impact of sexual harassment and the glass ceiling on culturally diverse women in the workforce.

Cultural Perceptions of Sexual Harassment

Sigal, Gibbs, and Goodrich (2005) used a vignette in which a male professor was accused of sexually harassing a female graduate student. Participants were then asked to judge the professor and determine whether his actions constituted sexual harassment. The countries represented were divided into individualist and collectivist categories. Those from individualist countries judged the professor much more harshly than those from collectivist countries. In addition, women judged the professor more severely and recommended harsher punishments than men. This research demonstrates how social upbringing can influence whether an act is perceived as sexual harassment and how serious the offense is considered to be.

This research supports the premise that culture and learned social cues shape perceptions of sexual behavior. It also demonstrates the degree of distress a person associates with such an act. Those from individualist countries experience greater distress because they view the act as a more serious offense. The study further shows that behavioral responses to sexual harassment can differ according to internalized cultural norms.

Psychological Effects of Harassment on Young Women

The connection between sexual harassment and mental health is well documented. An important question, however, is whether sexual harassment affects all workers equally, or whether it only worsens conditions among those already sensitive to inappropriate workplace behavior. Houle, Staff, and Blackstone (2007) studied the long-term impact of sexual harassment on young people as they transitioned to adulthood. They found that physical harassment during adolescence has a lasting depressive effect in young adulthood. Notably, this study found that these outcomes were not moderated by a prior history of mental health conditions — all subjects reacted similarly to the harassment. In addition, women were found to be more likely than men to suffer psychological harm from verbal harassment.

This study supports the view that sexual harassment has a detrimental effect on women's ability to overcome challenges to self-esteem in early adulthood. This effect may contribute to their difficulty in breaking through the glass ceiling. It may also make them less likely to challenge pay inequities or report other violations of affirmative action policies. The depressive effects of harassment experienced in youth prime young adults to expect more of the same, making them less likely to resist. As the research shows, women are disproportionately affected by this dynamic compared to men.

Conclusion: Breaking the Cycle

Sexual harassment sets women of all ethnic groups up for the glass ceiling. It lowers their self-esteem, causes depression, and makes them more vulnerable to verbal harassment than men. Early sexual harassment reinforces the cultural norms that sustain the glass ceiling and the unequal treatment of women in the workforce. Research demonstrates that the effects of sexual harassment are lifelong and can condition women to accept further harassment. Once the pattern is established, it can be difficult to break — for both the victim and the perpetrator.

Understanding the seriousness and the long-term consequences of sexual harassment is the first step in making the case for stronger laws and interventions. However, stronger laws alone are not sufficient. Programs designed to help women help themselves are also needed. These programs must be culturally sensitive and take into account the religious, cultural, and social attitudes of the women who fall victim to harassment. The next phase of research on sexual harassment should focus on developing such programs. Initiatives that help women recover from harassment will play a key role in reducing its prevalence and empowering women to break the glass ceiling. Affirmative action will only be effective if legal reform is accompanied by genuine cultural and attitudinal change within society regarding the status of women and how they deserve to be treated.

References

Barak, A. (2007). Sexual harassment on the Internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 77–92.

Houle, J., Staff, J., & Blackstone, A. (2007). The psychological impact of sexual harassment during the early occupational career. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, New York, NY. Retrieved April 1, 2010, from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p184015_index.html

Sigal, J., Gibbs, M., & Goodrich, C. (2005). Cross-cultural reactions to academic sexual harassment: Effects of individualist vs. collectivist culture and gender of participants. Behavioral Science, 52(3–4), 201–215.

Timmerman, G. (2004). Adolescents' psychological health and experiences with unwanted sexual behavior at school. Adolescence, 39.