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Gettysburg
In a long war of attrition, which the Civil War became after 1861, all of the economic, financial and population advantages would favor the North since the South was a mostly agrarian region that imported its manufactured goods. Initially, both sides had expected that the war would be short and decisive, although by 1862 it was clear that it might drag on indefinitely. Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee and the other Southern leaders realized that their best chance would be to win a series of rapid military victories early in the war then appeal to Britain, France and other European nations for diplomatic recognition. They did not wish to conquer the North nor did they ever imagine that they had the capacity to do so. Their only goal was to gain independence and force the other side to end the war, but the longer it lasted, the more the Union's advantages in population, money, ideology and resources would grind the Confederacy down. They came very close to achieving this is 1861-63, when one Northern general after another was defeated in Virginia in vain attempts to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond. In retrospect, though, this was as close as they would ever come to victory.
After his victory at Chancellorsville in May 1863, where Stonewall Jackson was killed in error by his own men, Robert E. Lee decided on another invasion of the North. His goal was to divert enemy forces from the siege of Vicksburg, the last major Confederate bastion on the Mississippi River, to gather supplies, and threaten Washington, Philadelphia and Baltimore, which might damage the Lincoln administration and its supporters politically. Gen. Joseph Hoover was stunned and shattered by his recent defeat in Virginia, and Lincoln placed him with George Meade as commander of the Army of the Potomac. In the middle of June, Lee marched the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac, capturing Winchester and Martinsburg, paying disgruntled Northern civilians with worthless Confederate money when they took supplies. Confederate forces under Jubal Early occupied Gettysburg briefly on June 26th and then...
Lee's army was spread out all over this part of southern Pennsylvania at this time, but before the great battle of July 1-3, 1863, the town had no special significance to either side. It was just another small town, but when the Confederates were defeated there, they were never willing or able to attack the North again.
The First Day: The Unintended Battle
Neither side ever intended to fight a major battle at Gettysburg and James Longstreet, one of Lee's best commanders, would have bypassed the town completely as having no military or strategic significance. Fighting only began there because North Carolina troops under Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew were ordered to raid the town for supplies, particularly shoes, which the Confederates always lacked. Longstreet's preference would have been to advance on Washington or Philadelphia, but Lee overruled him, saying that if the enemy armies were there than that was where he intended to attack. He later admitted to Jefferson Davis that he had made a major error by fighting a battle at Gettysburg at all, and described it as his worst mistake of the war. The key development on the first day was that the Army of the Potomac under Gen. George Meade seized almost all of the high ground, including Cemetery Ridge, Cemetery Hill and Culp's Hill. In the afternoon, Confederate Gens. Jubal Early and Robert Rodes defeated the Union forces north of Gettysburg, causing them to retreat to Cemetery Hill. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock advised Gen. George Meade that Gettysburg was some of the best defensive ground he had ever seen, and advised that he bring up all his forces to hold off the enemy here. Lee's forces missed opportunities to capture this high ground on the first day, and this is what really decided the battle.
The Second Day: Little Round Top, Cemetery Hill and the Devil's Den
At the start of the second day of battle, the Northern armies held the high ground at Culp's Hill, Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge and Cemetery Hill, while Lee had his headquarters on Seminary Ridge. Lee ordered Longstreet to attack the Union left at Emmitsburg Road, while Jubal Early was to be prepared to attack Culp's and Cemetery Hills. Longstreet's attack on Gen. Daniel Sickles…
On July 3rd, Lee ordered a final attack by Ewell on Culp's Hill, which was thrown back. After this failure, he ignored Longstreet's advice again and ordered an attack on the Union center at Cemetery Ridge. The Confederate artillery fired until they ran out of ammunition at about 3 PM, and then Gen. George Pickett advanced with 12,500 men. After the bombardment lifted, the Northern troops were surprised to see the enemy marching in rows across open ground, and began to chant "Fredericksburg, Fredericksburg!" As a reminder of the defeat the Union had suffered there after attacking a well-fortified opposing force. Then the Union artillery and infantry opened fire with devastating effect, killing or wounding half of the attackers. They reached the Union lines only at one point, known as the Bloody Angle or 'the High-water Mark of the Confederacy." This was where Gen. Louis Armistead started waving his hat on the end of a sword to urge the Confederates on, but was then shot down. In cavalry engagements on the same day, Gen. George Custer Michigan cavalry distinguished itself against Confederate cavalry under Jeb Stuart and Wade Hampton, preventing a flanking attack on Cemetery Hill.
Conclusion
Modern historians calculate that the total casualties of this three-day battle were about 57,000, with about 3,000 dead on the Union side and nearly 5,000 for the Confederates, making it the deadliest single engagement of the war. Nearly one-third of the Confederate generals were casualties. On July 4, 1863, one day after Lee retreated from Gettysburg, the fortress city of Vicksburg surrendered, effectively cutting the Confederacy in two. Although there would be two more years of very bloody fighting, the South remained on the defensive and was slowly ground down in a relentless war of attrition. Had Britain and France intervened militarily and diplomatically on the side of the South, it might well have tipped the balance in favor of Confederate independence. After the defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg in 1863, the South's hopes for foreign recognition and intervention faded, although they still hoped that Lincoln might lose the 1864 election to the conservative, pro-slavery Democrat George McClellan. When Union military victories like General William T. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in 1864 made Lincoln's reelection inevitable, the Confederate leaders realized they had no more cards to play, for Lincoln had always been determined to fight the war to the finish. At least some Confederate leaders probably began to turn to truly desperate ideas in the final months of the war like kidnapping or even assassinating Lincoln, but this was grasping at straws. Their only hope for independence had always been a decisive military victory in a short war, before all the structural advantages of labor, population, resources and antislavery, free labor ideology all came into play to the advantage of the North.
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