Causes of Declining Math Performance in Elementary Grades

Introduction and Statement of the Problem

The problem of interest to this proposed study concerns a significant issue in elementary education: the sustained decrease in students' mathematics performance between lower and upper elementary grades in recent years. Although this decline in mathematics performance has been attributed to various factors, the research to date confirms that the COVID-19 pandemic has had significant adverse effects on mathematics achievement among elementary school students in the United States (Oostdam et al., 2024). Indeed, significant learning delays were experienced by many young learners as school closures and the rapid transition to remote learning disrupted traditional educational practices, leaving many students struggling to grasp mathematical concepts without in-person classroom instruction (Oostdam et al., 2024).

The lack of face-to-face interactions with teachers and peers, due to varying lengths of state-level lockdowns, hindered collaborative learning and immediate feedback—both of which are crucial for developing mathematical skills. In this regard, Jason (2024) emphasizes that "In March 2020, the nationwide response to the COVID-19 global pandemic was to close all schools, disrupting the educational process for students, which may have caused significant learning loss, particularly in elementary mathematics" (p. 172).

While longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate this diminished performance level with greater precision, what is known for certain is that even prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent school closures, the nation's youth were experiencing a sustained decline that warrants the attention of parents, policymakers, and educators alike (Reading and Mathematics Scores for 9-Year-Olds Decline during Pandemic, 2022).

In addition, the digital divide exacerbated existing inequalities, with some students lacking access to necessary technology or reliable internet connections for online learning (Cheung et al., 2023). As a result, many elementary school students experienced learning losses in mathematics, with some studies indicating that students fell behind by several months during the height of the pandemic compared to typical academic progress in previous years (Boughammer, 2023). These learning losses are difficult to make up, and an entire generation of young learners is confronted with the ongoing challenge of catching up with their counterparts from previous generations.

Further, the adverse impact of the pandemic has been especially pronounced among students from disadvantaged backgrounds, potentially widening achievement gaps and creating long-term challenges for mathematics education in the United States. With a focus on 1st to 2nd grade and 3rd to 5th grade, the current observation is that there is a considerable decline in the mastery of mathematical skills when students transition to upper elementary school—an issue that forms the basis for the research problem discussed further below.

The specific problem to be studied is the evident disparity in students' mathematics performance in lower elementary grades (1st and 2nd) compared to their performance in upper elementary grades (3rd to 5th). Several studies have indicated that mathematical competence is a crucial factor in children's academic success and future career opportunities, making this decline a significant concern for parents, teachers, and lawmakers alike (Ramirez et al., 2022). Despite this growing body of evidence, there is still a lack of understanding about why this achievement gap is occurring and how it can be most effectively addressed (Ryan et al., 2021).

Background, Justification, and Study Design

Recent research has shown that students' ability to grasp mathematical concepts significantly impacts their academic progress and future career prospects (Ramirez et al., 2013). One study found that strong early math skills are a robust predictor of later academic achievement—even more so than early reading skills (Duncan et al., 2007). No one questions the importance of math skills, but there is a noticeable decline in these skills among students as they progress from lower to upper elementary school (Salters, 2019). There remains a need for more in-depth exploration of the causes of this decline, its potential consequences, and the most effective interventions (Fyfe et al., 2012).

Although there is evidence of this problem, there is a deficiency in the literature regarding why it occurs (Salters, 2019). Current research tends to focus more on the existence of the problem rather than its underlying causes or potential solutions. There is a need for comprehensive research to explore factors such as curriculum design, teaching methodologies, student engagement, and possible cognitive developmental factors that might contribute to this decline. Further exploration of this topic will add to the literature by offering insights into the causes of the observed decline and suggesting potential interventions to mitigate it (Niemivirta et al., 2024).

The primary audience for this research will be elementary-level mathematics educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers in the field of elementary education. Parents and guardians would also benefit from understanding this issue in order to support their children's mathematical learning at home.

The study will be conducted in elementary schools across diverse districts in the United States, focusing on students transitioning from lower elementary (1st and 2nd grades) to upper elementary (3rd to 5th grades). This setting will allow for a comprehensive examination of the decline in mathematics performance across different demographics and educational environments. The research will involve classroom observations, analysis of student performance data, and interviews with teachers, students, and parents.

By encompassing a range of primary school settings—from urban to rural and across varying socioeconomic backgrounds—the study seeks to present a holistic view of the multiple antecedent factors contributing to the current mathematics achievement gap among elementary students in the United States. This timely, evidence-based information can then be used to identify and implement specific interventions that address the achievement gap in meaningful ways.

As the primary investigator, the researcher will be responsible for designing and implementing the study, collecting and analyzing data, and objectively interpreting the results. The researcher will collaborate with school administrators to gain access to classrooms and student performance records while ensuring that all ethical guidelines and privacy regulations are strictly followed (Kwame & Petrucka, 2024).

The researcher will also conduct structured interviews with teachers, students, and parents to gather qualitative data on perceptions and experiences related to mathematics education. Throughout the study, the researcher will maintain objectivity and adhere to rigorous scientific methods to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings. All appropriate institutional review board approval will be obtained as necessary. The researcher's role will further involve synthesizing the collected data to identify patterns, draw conclusions, and propose evidence-based interventions to address the observed decline in mathematics performance.

The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between teacher perspectives, instructional strategies, and student performance within different educational contexts—in order to identify the causes of the decline in mathematics performance and, based on the findings, propose potential interventions. These findings could contribute substantially to improving teaching methodologies and curriculum design, ultimately achieving better student outcomes in elementary mathematics education.

Theoretical Perspective and Literature Map

The problem of declining mathematics performance in upper elementary grades is grounded in Social Cognitive Theory. This theory was originally developed by Albert Bandura in 1986 and was primarily used to study how individuals learn in social contexts. Social Cognitive Theory holds that learning occurs in a social context through a dynamic and reciprocal interaction among the person, the environment, and behavior. According to this theory, students' learning and academic performance can be influenced by their social interactions, personal factors, and environmental factors—such as their teachers' instructional strategies and competence.

The literature map presented in Figure 1 provides a visual overview of how the selected literature fits within the broader categories of instructional factors and individual factors, both of which potentially contribute to the problem statement under consideration. The hierarchical structure of the map signifies the flow of topics under each category, ultimately connecting them to the problem statement.

As noted in Chapter One, the problem of interest concerns the sustained decline in students' mathematics performance in upper elementary grades compared to their performance in lower elementary grades, viewed through the lens of Social Cognitive Theory.

The instructional factors theme draws on the following key studies: Oppermann, Brunner, and Anders (2019) on the interplay between preschool teachers' science self-efficacy beliefs, teaching practices, and student motivation; Engledowl, Webel, and Yeo (2021) on profiles of elementary teachers' use of mathematics curriculum materials and the influence of teacher expertise; Schoen and LaVenia (2019) on teacher beliefs about mathematics teaching and learning; Dahal, Luitel, and Pant (2019) on teachers' use of questioning as an instructional strategy; Bovill and Woolmer (2019) on curriculum conceptualization and student-teacher co-creation; and Lee and Santagata (2020) on novice primary school teachers' knowledge and the quality of mathematics instruction.

The individual factors theme draws on: El-Adl and Alkharusi (2020) on relationships between self-regulated learning strategies, learning motivation, and mathematics achievement; Xia et al. (2022) on motivation, engagement, and mathematics achievement among Chinese primary students; Falco (2020) on an intervention to support mathematics self-efficacy in middle school; and Kelcey, Hill, and Chin (2019) on teacher mathematical knowledge, instructional quality, and student outcomes.

The foregoing themes are summarized in Table 1, which presents a series of relevant studies in primary mathematics education organized by theme, reference, study description, data collection approach, and summary of results.

The summary in Table 1 reveals several key themes in mathematics education research. Under the "Instructional Factors" theme, studies explored various aspects of teaching mathematics. Teacher perspectives were found to significantly influence teaching practices and student motivation, with teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and use of curriculum materials playing important roles. Teachers' beliefs about math teaching and learning were identified as crucial factors in instruction and learning outcomes. Instructional strategies—particularly questioning techniques—were shown to impact student engagement and understanding. The conceptualization of curriculum was found to affect student-teacher co-creation, while teacher competency, especially in novice primary school teachers, was linked to the quality of math instruction.

With respect to the "Individual Factors" theme, research focused on student-related aspects. Studies consistently found positive relationships between students' self-regulated learning strategies, motivation, engagement, and math achievement. An intervention aimed at improving math self-efficacy in middle school students proved effective. Additionally, teacher mathematical knowledge was found to have a significant impact on instructional quality and student outcomes. These findings highlight the complex interplay between teacher-related factors, instructional approaches, and student characteristics in mathematics education, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies to improve math achievement in elementary and middle school settings.

Instructional Factors: Teacher Perspectives, Beliefs, Strategies, and Curriculum

A frequently overlooked but critical issue concerning the sustained decline in mathematics performance is the perspective of the teachers who are on the front lines of delivering elementary classroom instruction (Roncevic Zubkovic et al., 2023). For instance, Oppermann et al. (2019) investigated the intricate relationship between preschool teachers' science self-efficacy beliefs, their teaching practices, and the motivation of their students. These researchers collected data through questionnaires and discovered that teachers' perspectives about learning significantly influenced their teaching practices, which subsequently affected student motivation. This underscores the crucial role that teachers' self-beliefs play in their effectiveness in teaching.

By contrast, Engledowl et al. (2021) focused their research on the different ways elementary teachers use mathematics curriculum materials and how their expertise influences this usage. Data collected through surveys and classroom observations highlighted a strong correlation between how teachers utilize curriculum materials and their proficiency in teaching. Their study also underscored the importance of understanding teacher beliefs—the focus of the next factor.

Beyond the foregoing findings, a growing body of research indicates that teacher beliefs concerning optimal instructional strategies are important considerations in primary mathematics education (Kiliçaslan, 2023). Supporting that view, Schoen and LaVenia (2019) sought to identify and clarify three constructs related to teacher beliefs about mathematics teaching and learning. By gathering data through surveys and interviews, they found that teachers' beliefs significantly impact the teaching and learning processes, which in turn emphasizes the importance of effective instructional strategies.

Instructional strategies play a crucial role in shaping elementary school students' mathematics achievement. Research has shown that interactive, student-centered approaches—such as problem-based learning and collaborative group work—can significantly enhance mathematical understanding and retention. Likewise, the use of concrete manipulatives and visual representations, particularly in the early grades, has been found to improve students' grasp of abstract mathematical concepts, leading to better overall performance in mathematics.

To that end, Dahal et al. (2019) concentrated on understanding the use of questioning as an instructional strategy by mathematics teachers. Their data, collected through classroom observations, revealed a direct influence of teachers' questioning strategies on students' engagement and understanding of the material, thereby stressing the critical role of effective teaching strategies. These strategies are partially shaped by the curriculum, discussed next.

A study by Bovill and Woolmer (2019) explored how curriculum conceptualizations influence student-teacher co-creation. Using semi-structured interviews and document analysis, they concluded that how curriculum is perceived and designed significantly affects student-teacher co-creation, pointing to the critical role of teacher competency.

Competent teachers can make all the difference, ceteris paribus, between success and failure in mathematics performance. Lee and Santagata (2020) conducted a longitudinal study assessing novice primary school teachers' knowledge and the quality of their mathematics instruction. Using classroom observations and teacher interviews, they concluded that a teacher's knowledge profoundly influences instructional quality.

Even the most dedicated and talented teachers may lack the specific competencies needed to most effectively communicate the fundamentals of mathematics to young learners. In this regard, a study by Baier et al. (2019) concluded that "teachers differ substantially in their instructional performance in the classroom. Thus, researchers and policymakers are interested in how these differences can be explained and how the instruction provided by low-performing teachers can be improved" (p. 767).

The educational axiom that students who are not learning the way they are being taught must be taught the way they learn is particularly relevant to mathematics education. As an illustrative example, consider the "aha" moment in a third-grade classroom when a frustrated teacher finally said, "Take the bottom number and put it on the top and the top number on the bottom," rather than referring to "denominators" and "numerators" when teaching fraction multiplication. That simple reframing immediately clarified the concept for the entire class, and students' corresponding levels of self-efficacy and motivation to learn more mathematics increased as a result. This kind of conceptual reframing illustrates what competent mathematics teaching can achieve, and it has been shown to improve student motivation as discussed further below.