888). They offer several possible explanations. Exposure to abuse as a child may result in an extreme and realistic fear of threat to survival. This may be how panic disorder starts. Later, it may persist, or recur spontaneously, even without abusive conditions. In the face of a real life threat, panic is not pathological, but in childhood panic may make the child more vulnerable to panic later. Exposure to abuse may lead to biochemical changes that increase the risk of a disorder. Because the study was based on interviews with 18 to 21-year-olds, who were asked to recall past experiences, the findings could be contaminated by recall bias in which young people with mental instability might be more likely to report abuse in childhood. However, the authors' analysis concluded that no evidence suggested an association between reporting abuse and the presence of psychiatric disorders. Discussion

These four articles, which report research studies on panic disorders, suggest that panic disorders may have both psychological and biochemical origins. Children who are abused have a higher risk for panic disorder in adulthood. Mothers with panic disorders often give birth to smaller babies. Likewise, children whose...

The meaning of research on pregnancy and panic disorder is unclear. One study reported no difference in frequency of symptoms in pregnant women, while another study argued that pregnancy protects women from manifestations of panic disorder. The latter study found increased manifestations during the post-partum period, which the researchers attributed mainly to hormonal fluctuations. None of the studies addressed the fact that women are diagnosed with panic disorder twice as frequently as men are.
References

Bandelow, B., Sojka, F. et al. (2006). Panic disorder during pregnancy and postpartum period. European Psychiatry, 21, 495-500.

Biederman, J., Petty, C., Faraone, S.V. et al. (2006). Effects of parental anxiety disorders in children at high risk for panic disorder: A controlled study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 94, 191-197.

Goodwin, R.D., Fergusson, D.M. And Horwood, L.J. (2004). Childhood abuse and familial violence and the risk of panic attacks and panic disorder in young adulthood. Psychological Medicine, 35, 881-890.

Warren, S.L., Racu, C., Gregg, V. And Simmens,…