Arthurian literature: themes and cultural significance

Pearl Poet's Sir Gawain

The Arthurian Legends are one of the most mysterious of Middle English literature. For many years historians have tried to match King Arthur to one of the Early Kings of Britain, however, all attempts have met without success. It is now generally accepted that King Arthur and the other Knights of the Round table represent a composite of the behaviors and attitudes of people of that time period. The same can be said of the character of Sir Gawain in "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight." As social attitudes changed, so do the ideal characteristics that exemplify virtue and purity. The character Sir Gawain appears in many versions of the Arthurian Legends. The characteristics and attitudes of Sir Gawain seem to shoe a shift over time. The most widely accepted version of the character of Sir Gawain is the version that is attributed to the poet known as the Pearl Poet. The Pearl Poet paints a picture of Sir Gawain that is virtuous and kind, and embodies all of the qualities that are favorable for a good knight. However, other version, particularly earlier French and English versions portray Sir Gawain as a lech and a rapist.

The Pearl Poet shows us a very young Arthurian court (the Green knight calls them "beardless children") and a young and idealistic Gawain. Gawain is tested and found wanting to a certain degree and the Arthurian court and their belief in the ideal of the perfect knight is found to be wanting as well. Why would the Pearl poet give us a young court and a young Gawain, especially after the court and Gawain had been increasingly portrayed as dysfunctional by writers previous to the Pearl poet? The following research will support the primary thesis that at the time when the Pearl Poet was writing his version of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, several versions of the story were already in existence and that the Pearl Poet takes this opportunity to examine what went wrong with Arthur's court. In doing this he blames a very young and inexperienced Arthurian Court and posits that for this reason it was doomed from the beginning.

The Pearl Poet may have been attempting to demonstrate that the code of conduct to which the knights were held was impossible for anyone to follow in reality. Yet these young people thought that they truly could live up to these unrealistic standards. In this respect, the Pearl Poet was engaging in revisionist history. The Pearl poet takes an intensely Christian perspective and his suggests that the young court is doomed because they are trying to give themselves God-like qualities or perhaps portray themselves as Christ-like figures. In the Pearl poet's eyes they were trying to achieve obtain perfection by living up to a code of perfection and this is impossibility in the Pearl poet's eyes.

In this respect, the ultimate good Sir Gawain painted by the Pearl poet can serve as an early type of political satire. His idea that he can live up to this impossible code may serve to demonstrate just how absurd these expectations truly are. Gawain's failing of the Pentangle and knightly code and the resulting disillusionment can be seen as the beginning of the end for Sir Gawain and for King Arthur's court as well. One prime example of this is when Sir Gawain took the Green Girdle. King Arthur's court saw it as a fashion statement and nor a sign of Gawain's failing. This example illustrates the inability of an immature court to see the moral failings of the code in lieu of the quest for worldly possessions.

The Pearl poet attempted to point out the flaws in King Arthur's court by exaggeration. He exaggerated this inflated ideal of moral ethics to highlight its flaws. The Pearl poet in essence agreed with earlier version of Sir Gawain but chose to express this idea in a led direct manner than his predecessors. He used literary technique to make his point, embracing a literary technique that would not become popular until much later. The Sir Gawain of the Pearl poet may seem to embody to knightly qualities held close by the Arthurian Court, but in reality, the picture is painted to demonstrate the futility in trying to attain it.

What do we know of the Pearl Poet?

We do not know the name of the Pearl Poet, but we can deduce many of his characteristics from an examination of his works. He works exist in a manuscript containing four poems, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, Patience, and Purity. These four poems appear to have been written by the same author. The following can be deduced by a close examination of the four known poems by this author.

The dialect of the poem reveals that they were written in the Northwest Midlands of England. The dialect of the Pearl poet places him somewhere in Lancashire, may more north, but not farther than tweed around 1330. The scenery in Sir Gawain also suggests this location. We know that Pearl had read Virgil, and classic Latin works as well (Szarmach, Tavormina, and Rosenthal, 1998)

As any author knows, it is nearly impossible to write about something or a subject of which one knows very little. For this reason, the content of the poem would suggest that the poet knows something about aristocratic life and that he took both Christianity and chivalry very seriously. However, as the exaggerated godliness of Sir Gawain suggests, he also is not immune to viewing its absurdities as well and is not afraid to poke fun at them. He was not afraid to express opinions in an open manner even if they went against Typical Medieval beliefs, such as the ideal of courtly love seen in Sir Gawain. The Pearl poet shows us a character that is quite different from the conventional ideal of courtly virtues.

The manuscript of Pearl poet is housed in the Cottonian manuscripts in the British Museum is a small volume numbered Nero A.x (Gollancz and Litt, 1907-21). The manuscript can be dated to around the later fourteenth or early fifteenth century, judging from the hand and style of English used.

The meter and technical analysis of the Pearl poet suggests that he was well educated and familiar with the mastery of the stanza. He used a meter and rhyme scheme familiar to his contemporaries. The form shows some of the rudimentary characteristics of the sonnet. The Pearl poet seems to have no technical difficulties and has a rich vocabulary at his disposal (Bishop, 1968). The Pearl poet draws his diction from English, Scandinavian and Romance elements of English speech, which may at times make the poem seem a bit choppy. These elements would suggest that the Pearl poet is highly educated and has traveled to foreign lands where he could hear the native tongue spoken. These factors would suggest that the Pearl poet came from an upper class family (Malcolm and Waldron, 1953)

What were Pearl's Sources?

The author himself states that the story of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight had been "Locked in lettered lore." This hints at some lost original, which was no doubt in French or Anglo French. The oldest form of the challenge and beheading as depicted in the Sir Gawain story is found in an Old Irish heroic legend. This legend can be traced to the late eleventh or early twelfth century and was set during Fled Bricend (the Feast of Bricriu). The story is told by Cuchulinn, the giant in the story is Uath Mac Denomain who lived near the lake. The Cuchulinn episode became ingrained in the Arthurian Legend (Szarmach, Tavormina, and Rosenthal, 1998)

The basic elements of the Arthurian legend can be found in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Brittaniae (written around 1139). The poetic translation of this work by Layamon, called Roman de Brut (1205), introduced the legends of Excalibur. The French author Chretien de Troyes introduced the figure of Lancelot and the English knight Sir Thomas Malory summarized the Arthurian legends in Morte D'Arthur (circa 1485) (Szarmach, Tavormina, and Rosenthal, 1998).

The French version that most closely resembles the Gawain story was found by Madden in he first continuation of Gautier de Doulens of Chretien's Conte del Graal. This story is connected with Carados, Arthur's nephew. There are some that do not consider this to be a source for the Pearl poet as it differs in many respects from the English version of the romance. However, regardless of the differences, the main plot of the story remains, the beheading and test at the castle. It is evident that the Pearl poet knew of Conte del Graal, but that he placed his own twist on the theme.

It is widely accepted that the Pearl poet is the true author of the four poems contained in the Cottonian manuscripts. However, there has been one theorist who disputed this claim. It is only being mentioned due to the fact that this theorist managed to gain a great amount of support based on very little evidence and the point in this argument is emphasize the continuity and certainty of the position that the Peal poet wrote Sir Gawain and the Green Knight as we know it today.

This errant theorist was named Guest and was a historian of English rhythms. He claimed that Huchoun of the Awle Ryale was the poet responsible for Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. His primary argument was that in a blank space in the original manuscript of Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight, a hand of the fifteenth century has scribbled the name Hugo de, but this seems like little evidence, especially when one examines the style of the poetry. The Cottonian manuscript bears little resemblance to the other works of Huchoun. It does contain the deer, boar, and fix hunting scene in Gawain. However, this scene was probably borrowed and does not lend evidence to authorship.

The author of the poem of Erkenwald is closer to the work of the Pearl poet than any of the poems by Huchoun. However, it can still be argued that the Pearl poet may have been influenced by him. However, by an examination of the internal evidence in the poems such as meter, style and language, it is more likely that the Pearl poet was a student of his or at least an avid reader of his. There are many parallel passages and whole lines that are repeated. However, this same effect is seen in poets of the Chaucerian school. Poets who studied together often included or emulated their masters. One theory suggests that Erkenwald was written by Pearl poet himself. However a closer examination of the phraseology and dialect would place this work somewhere near London, not the Northwest as the Cottonian manuscript (Szarmach, Tavormina, and Rosenthal, 1998).

The influence of the above mentioned authors cannot be ignored in the reading of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. There have been some that have claimed that the Pearl poet is indeed one of these other authors. However, these theories have several problems. First, the meter and style may be similar, however, this is not uncommon for persons who were educated at the same school, especially if they speak the same dialect. These similarities cannot be construed as authorship, at least until all of the other evidence has been considered. In addition the character of Sir Gawain painted by the Pearl poet is very different from that referenced in the above mentioned sources. It is unlikely that an author would present one perspective and then produce a work that completely contradicts the first. Sir Gawain is obviously the work of a very talented poet who drew his influence from his contemporaries or from others in the area.

John Bowers has draws parallels between the poem and the cultural life of Richard's court, with particular attention to some of the poem's more dramatic and vivid images, including the pearl, the lamb, and the New Jerusalem (Bowers, 1995), Bowers argues that one can find too many similarities between Pearl poet and the court of Richard II. He also points out that the regalia and arms are that of Richard II. Many historians do not give this theory much credit as it is the primary consensus among scholars that the work was written long before Richard IIs reign. Adherence to Bowers theory would mean that the work is written later than is generally believed and this is not supported by the literary style, grammar and other technical elements of the poem.

Closer Look at Pearl poet's Gawain

Our first look at the personality of Sir Gawain is when the Green Knight suddenly appears at the New year's Eve celebration at Camelot. He offers a challenge for anyone to come forward and strike him with his ax. Twelve months and one day later he will return the blow. No one steps forward and King Arthur, embarrassed by his knights' lack of response (cowardice) accepts the challenge himself. Just as Arthur us about to strike the blow, Gawain jumps up and says,

Would you grant me the grace,

To be gone from this bench and stand by you there,

If I without discourtesy might quit this board,...

I am the weakest, well I know, and of wit feeblest;

And the loss of my life would be least of any;

That I have you for uncle is my only praise;

My body, but for your blood, is barren of worth;

And for that this folly befits not a king,

And 'tis I that have asked it, it ought to be mine,

And if my claim be not comely let all this court judge, in sight." (Norton, 209)

There are several interesting elements to this scene. First, the apparent cowardice shown by all of the knights is not considered to be good knightly behavior. This scene exaggerates the human qualities of the knights. They fear for their own lives more than they care about chivalry at this moment. This is a fine example of he Pearl poet's use of exaggerated human qualities to contrast with the knightly qualities that are supposed to be shown by all knights. It is unthinkable for one's liege to take the blow for his knights (Nicholls, 1985). We also learn that Gawain considers himself the weakest and feeblest of the knights. He hints that his life would cause the least loss of all of the knights. This sounds like a touch of low self-esteem, at least by modern standards. This passage also reveals that Arthur is Gawain's uncle. This was referenced in the French Conte del Graal and shows that Pearl poet had knowledge of this work prior to his writing of the Cottonian manuscript.

There are many that would interpret Gawain's actions at this point as valiant and noble. Interpreted from a modern screenplay perspective, it would appear that Gawain did step in to save the day. However, in period context there were several social mistakes made by Gawain. First of all, it is obvious that all of the knights, Gawain included, put themselves and their own self preservation above all others. Secondly, in Gawain's lament about his station in life, it hardly seems becoming for a knight to put his mother and father down in such a way. A knight should be proud of his heritage, not ashamed of it. Humility is a good and knightly virtue, however, it can be argued that in this passage Gawain appears to be ashamed of his heritage.

When Gawain sets off on the morning to meet the Green Knight, Pearl poet sings praises of the Gawain,

The fifth of the five fives followed by this knight

Were beneficence boundless and brotherly love

And pure mine and manners, that none might impeach,

And compassion most precious -- these peerless five

Were forged and made fast in him, foremost of men." (Norton, 215-216)

As Gawain set out to meet his fate, he wore a pentangle on his armor. This is an interesting perspective coming from a poet who in all other respects appears to have a markedly Christian attitude. The pentangle is a pagan symbol, reflecting a reference to the earlier religions of England. It may also have come from the portion of the poem derived from the Irish folk tale. The pentangle stands for the four elements fire, earth, air and water. The fifth element represents the spiritual element, the element that makes a pile of organic matter into a living-breathing creature. The fifth elements is the culmination and connecting force behind all of the other elements. The phrase, "the fifth of the fives" is highly complimentary towards Gawain's spiritual development. It would have been more consistent with Pearl poet to make a reference to the holy trinity instead of the symbolism of the pentangle. Therefore this pagan reference must have come from an earlier version of the story and is more likely to be from the Irish rendition.

Pearl poet did not wish to offend his Christian audience, nor did he wish to offend his own Christian virtues, so in the following verse, we find a reference to the number five based on Biblical imagery.

First, he was found faultless in his five senses, and his five fingers never failed him in any deed, and all his faith in this world was in the five wounds that Christ carried on the cross, as the Creed informs us.

No matter where he moved in melee or in battle it was his fervent thought through thick or thin that when he fought his courage came from the five joys the high Queen of Heaven had of her child.

(And so the noble knight would never wear his shield till her image had been painted on the inner half; for when he saw her face his courage never failed." (Norton, 217)

It can be argued whether he inserted this passage to please someone else, out of fear of insulting them, or if he inserted it in reverence to his own Christian perspective. This may have also been done due to the suggestion that the earlier reference to pentangles is from the older Irish religion. He may have felt the need to justify, or perhaps disguise the presence of this earlier pagan religion in his decidedly Christian works.

When the next passage is examined, it may be difficult to justify the above theory hover as Pearl poet used a sacred number five fives to signify Gawain's existence above the human realm.

And a fifth five was found in Gawain:

bounty and brotherhood above all else;

courtesy and a clean heart (these were never crooked) and the finest point, compassion -- these five virtues marked him more than any man alive.

Now all these five fives were fastened round this knight and each embraced the others in unbroken pattern and met in five fixed points that never failed, nor bunched together, nor split in pieces, but ran on endlessly at every point -- where the figure failed, it found new beginnings "(Norton, 218).

Pearl poet may have attempted to Christianize the pentacle in the previous passage, but it is difficult to justify the use of five fives in Christian imagery. Five fives is a pagan reference and even further supports the theory that Pearl poet had studied works be earlier poets. This inclusion of the ancient pre-Christian religion suggests that some of his works may have even come from oral; folktales that he had heard in the local area.

Even though, Gawain had a rough start as far as knightly virtues are concerned, he seems to redeem himself at Bercilak's castle. The guests offer high praise for him and it is obvious that he is well respected and received, "courage ever constant, and customs pure," he is "the father of fine manners," and his "displays of deportment" will dazzle their eyes" (Norton, 221). At this castle, he is tested many times and each time shows proper knightly virtues. In this scene Gawain showed the proper manners and grace that would normally be associated with a night of his stature. When Bercilak's wife tries to seduce Gawain, but avoids her advances with clever defenses. On the first day after being told she would marry him if she could he says, "You are bound to a better man, yet I prize the praise you have proffered me here." (Norton, 228) On the second day, we find that "Thus she tested his temper and tried many a time, whatever her true intent, to entice him to sin, but so fair was his defense that no fault appeared." (Norton, 234). Not only does Gawain refuse her advances, but also he does it with grace and humility. That is knightly behavior to be proud of, not letting the sins of the flesh overtake the moral institutions of chastity and fielty. The Pearl poet shows his adherence to standard Christian beliefs and morals. It is almost easy to forget that he is a young child and more likely to fall victim to his own raging hormones. At this point in the story, Pearl poet sets Gawain above normal human impulses and gives him a God-like quality. This is the behavior that one would expect from the Gawain of Pearl poet.

The Gawain portrayed in the tests at Bercilak's castle tries exceptionally hard to be the image of perfection. Taken in context, it may be that this striving for perfection is meant to make the point that he is human and the perfection for which he strives is unattainable in the human realm. This is exactly the point being made and this is a prime example of the exaggeration and God-Like qualities discussed earlier. Gawain strives to be perfect, and this may have been his downfall in the eyes of Pearl poet. Gawain is clearly holding himself to standards that are far above the normal human being in this passage.

On the third day Gawain shows his human side and Bercilak's wife says,

Made so plain her meaning, the man must needs

Either take her tendered love or distastefully refuse.

His courtesy concerned him, lest crass he appear, but more his soul's mischief, should he commit sin and belie his loyal oath to the lord of that house."(Norton, 238)

This passage was an attempt by Pearl poet to show Gawain's inability to live up to these lofty expectations. In addition Bercilak's wife tricked hum into taking a girdle of green silk from husband. She told him that if he kept it then girdle "no hand under heaven...could hew him down, for he could not be killed by any craft on earth" (Norton, 240). He did not tell Bercilak of this acquisition. He betrayed and lied to his host and compromised his own standards. Again, when confronted with a decision and a chance to preserve his own life, he compromised his own morals, once again showing his human side and his inability to live up to knightly codes when it came to preservation of his own life. If he had truly been following knightly code, then he would have chosen an honest fight without the aid of charms to give him an advantage. He would have placed his morals above his own life. However, the Pearl poet uses this to emphasize his human characteristics and to tear down the notion that knights are above temptation.

The youthfulness of Arthur's court is exemplified in the following passage,

But Arthur would not eat till all were served.

He bubbled to the brim with boyish spirits:

liked his life light, and loathed the thought of lazing for long or sitting still longer.

So his young blood boiled and his brain ran wild, and in many ways moved him still more as a point of honor never to eat on a high holiday till he should have heard a strange story of stirring adventures, of mighty marvels to make the mind wonder, of princes, prowess, or perilous deeds." (Norton, 200).

In this passage we find Arthur exemplifying the knightly virtues and not eating until everyone else were served. This shows extreme humility for a monarch in the Middle Ages. Kings and royalty were often served first and then everyone else. Arthur shows grace by being considerate of this gusts and not boasting his arrogance just because he is king. The line, "So his blood boiled and his brain ran wild." Tells us that he has a youthful attitude, wanting of adventure, even at the expense of common sense. Arthur shows a lack of wisdom and this may serve to illustrate Pearl poets posit that Arthurian court was doomed due to the youthfulness and lack of experience of its leadership.