Improving Athlete Performance using Mental Training

Annotated Bibliography: Mental Rehearsal in Sports

Bertollo, M., Saltarelli, B., & Robazza, C. (2009). Mental preparation strategies of elite modern pentathletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(2), 244-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.09.003

The study examined the range of preparation strategies and coping responses employed by elite modern pentathletes. The authors wanted to examine the athletes’ mental preparation strategies and behaviors in the days before their essential event, before, during, and after the competition. This was a qualitative study that employed interviews for its data collection. The sample size was 14 athletes (six women and eight men) aged between 21 and 33. The interviews were conducted during the competitive season, not close to the critical competitions. The interviews were semi-structured face-to-face individual interviews lasting between 60-90 minutes (Bertollo et al., 2009). Due to the interview duration, it was impossible to report all the information obtained. The authors selected representative quotes related to the study. The information was grouped into six higher-order themes: attitudes during training, behaviors during training, behaviors outside training, mental practice, goal setting, and seeking optimal feelings.

Athletes perform various mental practices during training, before competitions, and after competitions to ensure they stay at their optimal level. These activities motivate them and teach them how to cope with anxiety and competition stress, enabling them to perform at their peak levels. Since the athletes had not received formal training in sport psychology, the pentathletes managed to employ different approaches for different purposes to suit their needs.

Bertollo et al. (2009) hope the study can help sports psychologists be better equipped to offer their services to athletes. Sport psychology consultants should observe the athlete’s preparation strategies, coping responses, and sources of concern before offering suggestions. Differences in individual emotional and cognitive experiences affect their performance before, during, and after the competition. The study initiates the discussion on the psychological preparation of top-level modern pentathletes. The results can be used to develop mental programs that athletes can use to bolster their behaviors and thoughts before, during, and after the competition.

Calmels, C., & Fournier, J. F. (2001). Duration of physical and mental execution of gymnastic routines. The Sport Psychologist, 15(2), 142-150. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.15.2.142

The purpose of the study was to observe the mental practice employed by elite gymnasts by comparing the duration of their mental and actual executions of a floor movement. The authors did not formulate a hypothesis since they wanted to gather information on the use of imagery by elite athletes who have mastered their skills (Calmels & Fournier, 2001). However, they hypothesized that if their results were confirmed, then increasing the duration of some stages under mental conditions could be linked to the perception of the difficulty of the gymnastics elements (Calmels & Fournier, 2001). The study used twelve elite female gymnasts aged between 13 and 30 years. There were two conditions assigned to the gymnasts. The first condition required them to execute their floor routine normally. The second condition required them to rehearse the performance mentally. Each gymnast was filmed during both the mental and physical rehearsal conditions. The procedure was executed and repeated for three consecutive days.

The statistical results indicate the duration of the physical routine was longer than the duration of the imagined routine for all seven performances performed by the gymnast (F (1,11) = 55.62, p

Gaggioli, A., Morganti, L., Mondoni, M., & Antonietti, A. (2013). Benefits of combined mental and physical training in learning a complex motor skill in basketball. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2013.49A2001

The purpose of the study was to test the effectiveness of combined physical and mental practice against physical practice alone in learning a complex basketball motor task (Gaggioli et al., 2013). The motor task selected was the lay-up shot in basketball. The author hypothesized that combining mental and physical training would improve the performance of a closed sport task. The measures used for the study were imagery ability and the lay-up shot. The vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ) was used to measure imagery ability, and the lay-up shot was evaluated using a 5-point Likert scale. The study participants were sixty female university students randomly assigned to mental practice combined with conventional physical or physical training alone. The study had three phases: pre-training, training, and post-training. A baseline measurement was obtained in the pre-training phase. All phases were video recorded, and the second phase involved players in the combined group obtaining an audio file with instructions on visualization. The control group did not receive the same audio instruction.

There was a significant effect on training condition on coordination [F (1, 58) = 5.603, p < .05, ?2 = .088] and step accuracy [F (1, 58) = 3.724, p = .059, ?2 = .060]. The results obtained from the study are in line with others investigating motor imagery in basketball. Using an audio file to encourage visualization by the participants improved their ability to perform the motor skill, indicating the positive effects of mental rehearsal to learn a new skill. Using videotapes to analyze the performance eliminates the bias associated with self-reports. The results can be used to encourage the use of audio and video cues in practice to teach motor skills to novices (Gaggioli et al., 2013). Learning a complex movement can be made easy when the athlete is given a sequence to follow and is asked to visualize it frequently before attempting to perform it. The study adds to the available information by demonstrating the efficacy of motor imagery on coordination in learning a complex skill in a sport.

Garza, D. L., & Feltz, D. L. (1998). Effects of selected mental practice on performance, self-efficacy, and competition confidence of figure skaters. The Sport Psychologist, 12(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.12.1.1

The study aimed to examine the effectiveness of mental practice techniques in improving figure skating performance, self-confidence, and self-efficacy for competition. The authors hypothesized that the mental practice techniques would enhance the performance, self-efficacy, and competition confidence of the figure skaters compared to those in the no-mental practice control group. The study comprised 27 female competitive figure skaters aged between 10 and 18. A stratified random assignment was used to group the study participants into the paper freestyle drawing (PFD) intervention, walk-through on floor (WTF) intervention, or the control group (Garza & Feltz, 1998). The measures used were skaters’ performance ratings, self-efficacy, and self-confidence for competition. The coaches did skaters’ performance ratings. Self-efficacy was measured using an 11-point probability scale. Self-confidence for the competition was measured using the self-confidence subscale of the CSAI-2 was used to analyze competition confidence. The study participants underwent a 1-hr seminar, and at the end, they were given workbooks to take home and practice. They were to practice for four weeks. After the training intervention, participants competed in the club’s annual competition, where coaches rated their performance.

The study results were organized into manipulation checks, descriptive analyses, performance ratings, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. Manipulation checks indicate there was a significant group by pre/post interactions stretching F(2,24) = 14.21, walk-out F(2,24) = 100.55, and paper draw F(2,24) = 66.06. For the skaters’ performance ratings, there was a significant improvement in the PFD and WTF groups supporting the study’s hypothesis. There was a significant improvement in self-efficacy and self-confidence, supporting the study’s hypothesis. PFD and WTF are effective techniques for improving the performance of figure skaters. The use of mental practice techniques showed significant improvement compared to the control group. Using either PFD or WTF depends on preference, time, and location of the mental rehearsal. When there is a limit on space and movement, PFD is more practical (Garza & Feltz, 1998).

Hanton, S., Wadey, R., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2008). Advanced psychological strategies and anxiety responses in sport. The Sport Psychologist, 22(4), 472-490. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.22.4.472

The article examines the use of four psychological strategies and subsequent competitive anxiety responses (Hanton et al., 2008). In the discipline of sport psychology, competitive anxiety attracts a considerable amount of research attention. The study aimed to examine the perceived effect of psychological strategies on the intensity and direction of competitive anxiety and explores the perceived causal reasons through which the psychological strategies influence the experience of anxiety-related symptoms. The study used eight elite performers from the national sports institute in the United Kingdom. Hanton et al. (2008) used the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) measurement tool and only used four competition subscales of goal setting, imagery, relaxation, and self-talk. There was a preparation booklet developed to assist the participants in recognizing, distinguishing, and accurately reporting their symptoms associated with anxiety. There was a three-step procedure employed to select study participants. The first step involved identifying athletes who use advanced psychological strategies. Thirty-three athletes were identified, contacted, and screened for goal setting, imagery, relaxation, and self-talk using the TOPS inventory. Out of the 33 athletes, 14 were dropped since they did not meet the score of between 15 and 20 in the four subscales. The remaining athletes had a follow-up interview where only eight were found to use all four advanced strategies.

The results are presented in four causal networks: simulation training, cognitive restructuring, performance routines, and overlearning of skills (Hanton et al., 2008). The results indicated that all four categories affected the experience of anxiety-related symptoms before a competition. Overlearning of skills and cognitive restructuring influenced the intensity of mental symptoms experienced. Heightened attentional focus, increased effort, feelings of familiarity, and motivation were reported as causal reasons influenced by the advanced psychological strategies. The study results can be used to identify strategies for increasing athletes’ self-confidence before the competition. Using these advanced strategies can benefit athletes and coaches, and they can maximize the psychological benefits they would reap from implementing them. The article increases knowledge on mental rehearsal and places sport psychology in a stronger position.