Incentive Programs to Reduce Middle School Truancy

Introduction and Background

Truancy refers to any unexcused absence from school. Each state enacts its own school attendance laws and determines at what age a child is required to begin schooling, when a child can legally drop out of school, and the number of unexcused absences before a student is considered legally truant (NCSE, n.d.). Truancy adversely affects the student, resulting in lower grades and decreased chances for success in life. Truancy applies only to children who are of legal age for compulsory school attendance.

Reducing truancy is an objective of every school in the nation. As pressure increases to raise standardized test scores, the need to reduce truancy among all grade levels increases as well. Truancy has a negative impact on students, the school, and on the overall performance of the educational system of the country. Traditionally, truancy has been handled through negative consequences and the involvement of the criminal justice system. The effectiveness of these methods is marginal, at best. This study explores the use of positive reinforcement as an effective means of reducing truancy in the school system.

This research examines the use of positive reinforcement through items that can be earned through attendance and participation in the school system. This type of rewards system represents a new approach to the problem of truancy. The use of positive rather than negative reinforcement represents a paradigm shift in methodology for dealing with the truancy problem. This study explores the effectiveness of a rewards and points system in reducing truancy among middle school students.

Background of the Study

One of the key problems that plagues the study of truancy is a lack of statistical evidence on a national level (NCSE, n.d.). Data from Wisconsin suggests that as many as 1.6% of all students were absent on any given single day (NCSE, n.d.). According to national statistics, students who experienced behavioral problems were often sent to see a guidance counselor. Schools tended to employ one guidance counselor for every 284–335 students (NCES, 2004), which can mean a heavy caseload for school counselors.

Studies regarding court cases for truancy based on gender found that boys were only slightly more likely to be sent to court for truancy than girls. Of the petitioned cases from 1990–1999, 54% were boys and 46% were girls (Puzzanchera, 2003). Gender differences were of little significance in the truancy issue.

Truancy is not the end of the problem, but the beginning. Truancy has been linked to several undesirable and much more serious behaviors, including criminal activity, social isolation, educational failure, dropout, substance abuse, teen pregnancy, low self-esteem, and troubled family relationships (Office of the Surgeon General, 2001; Center for Mental Health Services, 2001). These problems have a significant impact on society—not only while the child is in school, but also after the child leaves school. Truancy impacts a young person's ability to find employment and become a productive member of society. Truancy has a high social cost, much of which is difficult to measure in concrete terms; however, the impact on society is real and significant.

Truancy is a significant problem for schools and communities. The goal is to prevent truancy before it becomes deeply problematic. A critical need exists to find ways to combat truancy and its impact on society. A study involving 28 communities found that truancy was a good predictor of middle school drug use. The same study found that truant eighth graders were more likely to smoke marijuana than those who attended school regularly (Halfors et al., 2002). This finding was a key reason for the selection of middle school students for participation in the proposed study.

There are many statistics missing from studies regarding truancy. For instance, no representative national numbers appear to exist, largely because many schools do not collect these statistics. Related statistics indicate that those who do not graduate from high school have reduced chances for employment and a higher likelihood of committing a crime compared with those who hold a high school diploma or GED (Harlow, 2003). Reducing truancy is therefore an important issue with high social costs at stake.

Many factors have been found to be associated with truancy. These include inconsistency in the application of attendance policies, policies that "push out" students with poor performance, a lack of parental notification of absences, safety issues, a poor school atmosphere, and the inability to identify special educational needs (NCSE, n.d.). Several familial factors have also been identified. These include family health or financial matters that pressure the student to care for others or hold a job. Abuse or neglect, teen pregnancy, safety issues near a child's home or on the way to and from school, parental substance abuse, and negative role models all contribute to truancy among students (NCSE, n.d.).

As one can see, many factors may contribute to school truancy. Some arise from school, and others arise from the home. Regardless of where the issues originate, the resulting truancy has negative consequences for the community and for the students themselves. Reducing truancy rates should be a priority for every school system in every community.

Statement of the Problem

Truancy poses a significant societal problem and threatens the future well-being of youth. In the past, methods intended to resolve truancy have had little impact on its overall rate. This study examines a new approach to the problem based on positive reinforcement rather than punishment.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine a new, positive approach to reducing truancy levels among middle school students.

Research Questions

This study explores a new approach to resolving high rates of truancy among middle school students. In addition to this central issue, it also explores the topic of truancy in greater depth. It attempts to fill in many missing gaps in research regarding truancy. The question of a lack of statistical records on truancy will be explored by asking: "What are the real truancy numbers in the schools chosen for study?"

The literature review revealed that many factors contribute to truancy rates, both at school and at home. Because this research is solution-based, the study remains focused on a single goal: discovering a way to reduce truancy. The study will explore the question, "What factors influence the success or failure of a positive reinforcement program designed to decrease truancy rates?" In doing so, the research will answer why and how the method affects truancy rates.

The study also focuses on the motivation of students to attend school, examining the program's ability to encourage students to come to school and participate. For instance, the research examines the most effective reward schemes and their impact on producing a real reduction in truancy. The study will ask the research question, "How does the reward program affect the willingness and motivation of students to attend school?"

Taking these research questions into consideration, the following hypotheses will be used to determine the success or failure of the program:

H1: The positive reinforcement program proposed in this research will result in a statistically significant decrease in truancy when compared to data collected prior to the program.

H01: The positive reinforcement program proposed in this research will not result in a statistically significant decrease in truancy when compared to data collected prior to the program.

This single hypothesis will serve as the unifying element for the research study and will be supported by the research questions to provide a deeper understanding of the issues at hand.

Study Variables

This study will utilize a quantitative research design consisting of statistical measures both prior to treatment and after treatment has been applied. Truancy rates for middle school students are expected to be dependent upon student response to an incentive program designed to encourage school attendance. The dependent variable is the truancy rate for students over the test period. The independent variable is positive reinforcement as represented by the incentive program. The study will examine increases or decreases in overall attendance rates before and after the incentive program has been in effect for at least half of the school year.

Rationale, Relevance, and Significance

This study is proposed as the result of a literature review suggesting that past methods for curtailing truancy relied on negative consequences as key motivators. This research takes a more positive approach to motivating students to attend school. The ultimate goal is to reduce the overall truancy rate among middle school students.

This is a much-needed study in the field of educational administration. It will provide school counselors and administrators a new approach to resolving the truancy problem and will be of use to law enforcement officials who wish to provide an alternative to the punishment-based systems that have prevailed in the past.

This study has significant relevance to other scholars in this field. It will examine a new way of thinking about attendance and about how to reduce truancy, straying from traditional methods and providing insight into a new direction for the field. The old, punishment-based systems are only marginally effective, yet no one has systematically tested a more positive approach to the problem. Positive reinforcement is a prominent technique in many related disciplines, and people are more likely to be motivated by working toward a goal than by avoiding negative consequences.

Practitioners in the field of education will be able to use this information to devise programs that get results. School counselors can use the program developed as part of this study to address truancy issues. The scholarly community will be able to use this research as a springboard into a new paradigm regarding truancy. Researchers could test various reward methods, apply the program to different age and demographic groups, or test its efficacy against punishment-based forms of truancy intervention.

There are many gaps in research regarding truancy. An examination of the topic leads to the conclusion that current methods for dealing with the problem are not based on recent research on human motivation. The current system—relying on the threat of criminal justice involvement and punishment—has changed little in recent years. Recent research suggests that punishment-based systems may be ineffective in reducing many types of unwanted behavior, including truancy. This research will give school personnel and law enforcement professionals new tools for addressing the growing problem of truancy in public schools and will draw on techniques from other fields that have successfully applied positive reinforcement to behavior modification.

Nature of the Study

This study will be a quantitative study addressing the issue of school truancy, presenting a new perspective on the problem and various means to reduce it. The study will use a comparative research method that assesses truancy levels before the program is applied to the test population and after application of the test procedure. Because many schools do not track truancy numbers in their student populations, the study will first determine baseline truancy levels before the test condition is applied.

Definition of Terms

Local Education Administration (LEA) — refers to the school district in which the study will be conducted.

Middle School Student — narrowly defined to include only those students currently enrolled in grades 7–8 for the current school year.

School Administrators — refers to those persons in charge of making macro-level policy changes on a district-wide level. It does not include principals of a specific grade level.

School Counselor — the person or persons responsible for administering counseling to students who have been truant. Many school systems use different nomenclature for this role; they may be called an academic advisor, school psychologist, sociologist, or other titles. Their position is defined in this study by the role they perform rather than their formal title.

Truancy — There are many aspects to truancy that make it a difficult term to define. Although every state in the U.S. has enacted compulsory school attendance laws, many differences exist in what constitutes school attendance and the various rules that govern it. For instance, in Michigan, the age of compulsory school attendance is 6–16 (Michigan Department of Education, 2002), while Alabama was considering raising the compulsory school attendance age to 17 or 18 (Goymer, 2007). These differences affect the definition of truancy from one state to another. For the purposes of this study, a uniform definition of truancy will mean an unexcused absence from school without a valid medical excuse presented within the required time period.

Assumptions and Limitations

Differences in the definition of truancy and in state and local attendance regulations will affect the ability to apply the results of the study to other situations. The exact policies and definitions used by the school district to be tested will have to be included as part of the study design. It will be assumed that the rules and policies that apply to truancy in the chosen school district will affect the outcome of the study.

One of the external problems that may affect the reliability of the study is the consistent application of rules. It will be assumed that administration and staff members are following the rules and interpreting them consistently. Although inconsistency may be an underlying problem, there is no concrete way to measure it. It will be assumed that school staff apply the rules in a fair and equitable manner and with the best interests of students at heart.

Conditions may also exist within the demographics or culture of the community that affect the success or failure of the new model. For instance, truancy in poor school districts may differ from that in rural school districts, and the reasons for truancy may also differ. Factors such as bullying, family culture, and other demographic factors affect the truancy rate within a given school district. These issues will be addressed via a survey given to the middle school population of the chosen school districts.

Because many of the factors that could affect the outcome of the study cannot be controlled by the researcher, a design had to be devised that would limit their impact on the study results. A comparison between different school districts would not yield valid results due to the presence of an extreme number of external variables. Therefore, it was decided that comparisons needed to be made within the same school district, which was the key reason for choosing a pre-condition/post-condition research methodology.

In order to make the results more broadly applicable, the same study will be repeated in five different school districts and the results compared between them. This will provide the ability to apply the results both within each school district and to other school districts regardless of community culture.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

Chapter One discussed the background of the problem, examined the scope and extent of truancy, and explored the necessity of finding new methods for reducing school truancy. It discussed the impact of confounding variables and defined the key terms to be used in the research study.

Chapter Two consists of the literature review. This chapter examines the existing body of research concerning truancy and methods to reduce it in many school settings. It examines the theoretical framework that is the basis for the research study and current practice within the field. It explores bridging the gaps and controversies within the field of study, draws in other theories that relate to truancy, and examines motivational theory as well as the theoretical underpinnings of current attendance policy. The final task of Chapter Two is to summarize the existing body of research into a cohesive whole that can be applied to the proposed reward program.

Chapter Three outlines the research methodology that will be used to study the research topic. It examines the researcher's philosophy and the connection between theory and its application to the research design. It sets forth the parameters of the research study, the limitations of the study, data collection and analysis procedures, and pilot testing procedures.

Literature Review: Historical and Theoretical Framework

Introduction

In Chapter One, it was discovered that the problem of truancy has a significant impact on a child's potential in life. With the pressure shifted to overall school performance, everyone has something at stake. Communities and the nation recognize that in order to remain competitive, the overall educational level of the country must be raised, placing the issue of truancy at the forefront.

The following explores the body of research regarding truancy and the methods that have been attempted to curb it. The literature review focuses on recent literature but, in order to fully understand the context of the problem, also examines the historical roots of the issue. Truancy is not only an academic problem — it also involves the criminal justice system. The literature review explores the need for a new approach beyond what has become the accepted norm for dealing with the problem.

Theoretical Framework

An examination of the historical background of truancy and current methods for combating it reveals that very little has changed in the field for the past 150 years. Efforts to reduce truancy focus on laws, enforcement, and punishment. The issue of truancy is closely tied to the criminal justice system, and an examination of this approach reveals that using the criminal justice system as the sole means of combating the problem is not only ineffective, it may be counterproductive as well.

During the 1980s and 1990s, research focused on finding causal relationships between contributing factors and truancy. Although this body of research was important for the development of more recent work, it did little to resolve the issues. Programs began to emerge that attempted to resolve truancy by focusing on underlying issues; however, a majority of programs continued to focus on punishment as the key method.

Recently, contributions from the field of motivational and behavioral psychology have had a significant impact on the direction that truancy research is taking. Recent theory is exploring the development of data-supported methods and interventions. Until recently, the methods used for controlling truancy were not supported by empirical evidence, and recent developments suggest that they are doing more harm than good. Isolating students and punishing them are not likely to motivate them to attend school — they are likely to have the opposite effect.

Research into truancy has been plagued by a significant lack of data-based methodology. Programs need to be developed using the basic principles of positive reinforcement as their key motivator. Positive reinforcement has been demonstrated to have a much better impact as a motivator than avoidance-based methods. Using these principles as a theoretical basis, this research examines the potential success of programs that emphasize reward rather than punishment as the key form of intervention.

Motivational theory will play a central role in the framework of this research study. The goal of the study is not to make students avoid truancy but to motivate them to attend school. While these two objectives might at first appear to be the same, there is a significant difference from the standpoint of human motivation. The truancy and dropout phenomenon is not a single, impulsive act but rather reflects a slow disintegration that has measurable indicators along the way (Lehr, Hansen, & Sinclair et al., 2003). It is important to recognize the signs early on and to intervene in a way that stops the disintegration process and re-engages the student in school and social life.

Recent research focuses on developing an understanding of the complex interplay between the student, family, school, and community, as well as the protective factors that prevent truancy even in the face of other risk factors (Lehr, Hansen, & Sinclair et al., 2003). One of the key gaps in current research is a lack of data-based interventions. Practices vary from school system to school system and may include counseling, remediation, tutoring, attendance monitoring, and after-school clubs (Lehr, Hansen, & Sinclair et al., 2003). All of these practices are being used, yet there is little research to support their effectiveness. This lack of data-based evidence forms the greatest gap in the body of knowledge regarding effective interventions and research-based theory on truancy.

A significant feature of the framework of this study is that it bases its chosen methodology on the simple concept of positive reinforcement. It will examine the proposed intervention using empirical methods and a mixed methodology that will not only provide data-based evidence but will also provide insight into why particular results are obtained. This research is expected to demonstrate the effectiveness of a rewards program over punishment-based systems in reducing truancy rates among middle school students.

This study represents a new paradigm in addressing the problem of truancy in schools. It is not based on any one particular model but is derived from a combination of techniques discovered during the literature review. This research will tackle the problem of truancy through the lens of standard behavioral theory and the concepts of reward and punishment. Viewing the problem of truancy through a behavioral lens, rather than through a criminal justice lens, is likely to result in higher motivation levels for school attendance.

It is expected that the results of this study will demonstrate the superiority of positive reinforcement over punishment-based systems for reducing truancy. The key reasoning for this assumption is that motivational research contends that positive reinforcement is more effective than negative reinforcement. In addition, evidence suggests that punitive consequences have demonstrated little effectiveness in curbing truancy.

This research strays from traditional thinking regarding the reduction of truancy. It approaches the topic from a different angle and offers the possibility of a fresh perspective. It is expected that this research will lead to additional research investigating positive methods of reducing truancy, as well as a serious re-evaluation of the role of the criminal justice system in connection with truancy issues.

The old system of punishment emphasizes the negative actions of the individual and erodes their self-esteem. Yet it is still used as a key method by guidance counselors. Using a method that has little academic support and that damages the student's self-esteem and confidence does not support the development of individuals with characteristics that lead to success. The system sets students up for failure rather than building them back up. This is counterintuitive and goes against research regarding common risk factors associated with truancy. One of the key risk factors for truancy is a lack of self-confidence, a feeling of a lack of control, and problems with peers. Creating a situation that stigmatizes the student sets them up for the development of future risk factors.

The current punishment-based system is in conflict with research supporting the finding that students with low self-esteem and a lack of sense of control are most likely to continue being truant and potentially drop out. A system that raises the student's confidence by allowing them to succeed in reaching a goal is much more in alignment with research on truancy and juvenile delinquency. This research will bridge the gap between theory and practice in the reduction of truancy.

Historical Context

Before proposing a new approach to resolve the problem of truancy, one must gain an understanding of where the problem came from and examine the successes and mistakes of the past. On a macro level, truancy is a deviation from the expected norms of a society. For many centuries, the issue of truancy did not exist because education was reserved for the elite and was considered a special privilege. The masses were largely illiterate and uneducated prior to the 1800s.

In the early 19th century, it became apparent that in order for society to progress, a literate and educated population was necessary. In the 1840s, for example, Scotland established an inspector whose job was to ensure that children were regularly attending school. The truant student was viewed as simply "out of place" (Paterson, 1989). Under this system, schools became a structured mechanism of discipline for the working class, aimed not at producing individuals who could achieve highly personal goals, but at training the working class to obey their superiors and produce goods. The concept of truancy and compulsory school attendance has its roots in Europe, spreading later to the United States (Paterson, 1989).

One of the key factors that led to educational reform in the United States was population growth. The original school system in the United States was devised to manage small, highly dispersed populations (Capen, 1874). By 1855, this system was reorganized into a hierarchical structure to manage the growth of schools. This "School Committee" was designed to "get the most work out of both teachers and scholars" (Capen, 1874, p. 24).

The 1850s saw many changes to the school system and the first laws regulating school policy. On April 12, 1853, New York enacted the first truancy law, mandating a $50.00 fine against parents whose children between the ages of five and fifteen were absent from school (Northend, 1853). This action formalized the precedent for parental responsibility and supervision of children.

An 1888 report from the Commissioner of Education expounded on the connection between truancy and other criminal activity (United States Bureau of Education, 1891). As early as 1846, truancy was considered a crime under the term "juvenile depravity" (Davis, 1915). Davis's work also made the connection between truancy, juvenile crime, and its prevalence in the lower classes of society. From the 1850s through the early 1900s, truancy was considered a crime, and overall methods for combating it were limited to various forms of punishment, many of which were severe (Davis, 1915).

As the 20th century progressed, little changed regarding truancy policy. Truancy officers pursued truant children, turned them over to the court system, and issued warnings and punishments to their parents. When one looks at the current system for dealing with truancy, a comparative look back reveals that in the past 150 years, little has changed in terms of truancy law or methods for handling the problem.

Truancy officers were, and still are, primarily prosecutors as far as their role is concerned (Crimmins, 1969). It was not until the 1990s that truancy officials began to rethink the problem. Regardless of the method or the severity of the consequences, truancy continued to grow to epidemic proportions. The idea began to emerge among school officials that the key to the problem was not to continue doing the same things that had been done for close to 150 years — it was obvious that the old system had never worked and still did not work.

Tougher punishment and stricter enforcement were obviously not the answer (Griggs, 1997). Suggestions ranged from jail time to cutting off welfare benefits to the parents of truant children (Rabinovitz, 1996). Victorian-style methods of control still dominated the preferred solution to the problem.

During the 1980s, truancy became a topic of interest in academic research, and a focus on early intervention and identifying students at risk for truancy issues began to emerge (Sommer, 1985). By the 1990s, an honest effort was underway by the academic community to understand truancy and its many causes. During this time, great strides were made in understanding truancy. It was found that involvement in the juvenile justice system significantly increased the likelihood that a person would drop out (Dorn, 1996), and that underlying problems remained unresolved once a youth entered that system.

As focus shifted from punishment to finding the causes of truancy, a set of risk factors began to emerge. For instance, young adults with symptoms of personality disorder were found to be more likely to be truant than those without this risk factor (Cohen, 1996). During the 1990s, the topic of motivation and its association with truancy also began to gain attention. Factors such as the role of effective feedback, intrinsic motivation, and a person's self-concept began to serve a role in explaining why juveniles chose to become truant (Mill, 1991). A racial gap in truancy was also found; African-Americans were more at-risk than other racial groups for poor grades, truancy, and other forms of juvenile delinquency (McCarthy & Hoge, 1987).

Research into truancy conducted during the 1980s and 1990s laid the groundwork for emerging themes in research today. Now it is recognized that truancy has a tremendous social impact and that a number of variables contribute to students being at risk for truancy. Research has switched its focus from causality to discovering innovative ways to motivate students to attend school. However, practices still focus on a punishment-based approach, embedded into the educational and justice system, and remain the most prevalent means of treating the problem regardless of a lack of academic support for their effectiveness.

Motivational and Behavioral Research: Why Punishment Doesn't Work

Truancy is not a matter of bad children behaving badly or of bad parents forgoing their parental role. The issues involved in truancy go beyond the student, the school, and the parents. Literature has found many conditions that contribute to truancy. Truancy represents a failure of the system to create an environment in which the student wants to come to school.

One of the key misunderstandings in the truancy issue is the difference between motivation and control. Motivation stems from a positive feeling and a desire to succeed academically. Control-based measures seldom achieve the internal desire to attend school and set academic sights high. Control-based measures may compel the student to attend based on fear, but they will seldom result in the internal changes that create a genuine desire to succeed. The ability to create an internal change and true desire for learning is the difference between achieving a permanent solution and perpetuating a pattern that leads to the student becoming a lifetime offender on the road to dropout.

Truancy is a behavioral and motivational issue more than it is a criminal justice issue. The problem is not what punishment the student should receive, but how to motivate them to come to school in the future. In truant and low-performing students, a lack of self-confidence in their ability to achieve academically was found to decrease motivation to attend school (Martin, Martin, & Gibson et al., 2007).

A recent program involving Portuguese families sought to decrease problem behaviors while increasing school attendance. This program, referred to as Alternative Paths (AP), sought to increase motivation for school attendance by focusing on integrating students into the community and making them feel important (Sarmento, Almeida, & Rauktis et al., 2008). An after-school program that focused on increasing tutoring, cultural, and social and recreational activities demonstrated considerable success in decreasing truancy for at-risk African-American adolescents (Martin, Martin, & Gibson et al., 2007). Reward-based programs have proven much more effective in increasing attendance rates than punishment-based programs (Martin, Martin, & Gibson et al., 2007). The Discovery Program is designed to combat the underlying causes of truancy and delinquency and was found to be highly effective in reducing truancy rates among participants (Ventura & Miller, 2008).

These programs demonstrate that positive reinforcement works to reduce truancy. Programs that focus on making school a positive experience are more effective in improving attendance than programs that create a negative experience for children.

A recent study involving French technical schools found that issues connected with truancy were not related to oppositional defiance disorder or to a lack of motivation, but to anxiety over school (Brandabas, Juenier, & Claude et al., 2004). This study concluded that positive reinforcement and social desirability were the keys to reducing truancy and maladjustment to school. The French study supports the basic premise of the proposed research. Taking this information into account, it is not surprising that punishment does not solve the truancy problem and in some cases makes it worse. The stress and fear of punishment increase anxiety in an already stressed student, and the fear of punishment is more likely to cause a student to miss school to avoid further consequences. Fear of punishment seldom acts as a motivator to perform a task such as going to school. Truancy is an avoidant behavior in many cases.

When a child skips school to avoid a negative outcome — such as bullying, punishment, or a feeling of failure over grades — threatening them only heightens their anxiety, creating a vicious cycle that compounds the undesirable behavior. Skipping school serves as a positive reinforcer in these cases because it allows the student to avoid punishment and stressors. Until this cycle is stopped, truancy will remain a means of coping with the world for that child.

Aside from empirical studies that support the use of positive reinforcement, evidence also exists from the field of neurophysiology that positive reinforcement produces a different neurological effect than punishment. The amygdala is the portion of the brain responsible for motivation and also the one that responds to reinforcement (Tye & Janak, 2006). The amygdala determines the emotional state attached to a given stimulus. In a study examining classical conditioning using appetitive and aversive emotional responses, both emotional responses were expressed through a similar set of physiological reactions, including rises in blood pressure and emotional arousal (Shabel & Janak, 2009). Pavlovian learning is driven by the neurological response called the Pavlovian-instrumental response (PIT) (Bray, Rangel, & Shimojo et al., 2008; Talmi, Seymour, & Dayan et al., 2007).

Research thus supports a neurological basis for the assumptions presented in this research study. When one combines this with research that supports the use of positive stimulus over aversion, it demonstrates a possible explanation for the unsuccessful attempts of the criminal justice system to control truancy through punishment.

Understanding the basic concepts of motivation is the path that will lead to resolution of the problem. Continuing to go down the wrong path by piling on anxiety and stress about school will not resolve the problem. School must be a positive place — not a place of anxiety — for a child to wish to go there. When a child skips school, it is more than likely an action designed to help them avoid a stressor. There are many stressors that stem from many different sources, but they all create a feeling of anxiety, leading to the natural tendency to avoid the stressor, whether it is the bully on the way to school, a fear of being chastised by the teacher, or a feeling of failure over grades. It is fear that drives the child to avoid school, not a desire to be "bad" or to rebel. Until we understand this and act on it, the problem of truancy will never be resolved.

The supposition that punishment creates additional problems likely to increase anxiety and lead to greater difficulties is supported by research. Children who had experienced suspension from school were likely to develop problems with their family, peers, and self-image. Those who had been suspended were more likely to experience high levels of family conflict, habitual alcohol abuse, low rank in their peer groups, and social dissatisfaction with friends (Yen & Wang, 2009). The study also found that those who had been suspended were more likely to engage in future deviant behaviors, experience low connectedness with school, and experience poor academic achievement. This supports the supposition that punishment only leads to a cycle of deviant behavior and social problems, leaving the real problems unaddressed.

Until we understand truancy as an avoidance behavior that is in itself rewarding — through the avoidance of a negative factor — the problem of truancy will never be resolved. If school were a positive event for the child, their brain would respond with the release of positive chemicals. However, if school is a major source of fear, it will trigger the release of stress hormones. One typically does not move toward pain and anxiety but tends to move away from it.

Using punishment-based systems to tackle truancy is counterintuitive to current study and practice in human motivation. Policy and practice must be in alignment with sound theory in order to work. At the current time, the punishment-based approach tends to create a cycle of fear and avoidance that does not make sense from a motivational theory perspective. Yet the criminal justice system continues to feed this cycle with stiffer punishments and tougher enforcement. The cycle must be stopped and replaced with an approach that is in alignment with current motivational theory, not one that has changed little since the Victorian era.