Errorless Learning for Children with ASD

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Introduction

Autism spectrum disorder is an incurable developmental disorder that can be treated with various interventions based upon the severity of the disorder. This literature review covers the important approaches made to understanding autism as well as important findings regarding the utility of fostering a nurturing environment when developing and intervention. It looks at the role that maternal warmth, chaotic homes, and instability play in the co-occurrence of psychopathology among autistic children. It then discusses the role of understanding autism in child and adolescent psychopathology studies.

Literature Review

The CDC (2021) defines autism spectrum disorder in children as a developmental disorder. However, the first systematic form of diagnosis for autism was developed by Kanner, based upon Bleuler’s introduction of the term “autism” as a psychiatric classification; Kanner went on to define autism as “an innate inability to form the usual, biologically provided contact with people” (Harris, 2018, p. 3). The important contribution Kanner made to the study of autism was in his discernment that each case of autism is entirely unique, and every child with autism must be approached in a manner that best supports that child’s development (Harris, 2018). Although Kanner categorized autism as a neurodevelopmental disorder, today autism is also viewed as a behaviorally defined disorder (Wohr & Scattoni, 2013). This modern categorization has facilitated the development of various approaches for assisting children diagnosed with autism; and, as Foxx (2008) has pointed out, “the only interventions that have been shown to produce comprehensive, lasting results in autism have been based on the principles of ABA” (p. 821).

One approach that has received recent attention in the realm of educational interventionim is the method of errorless teaching in which the instructor prevents the autistic child from making a mistake when learning a new skill that will assist in his development (Bloh et al., 2017). A key to errorless learning is the role of positive reinforcement, which helps the child to acquire a new skill without experiencing negativity (Mueller, Palkovic & Maynard, 2007). Errorless teaching is a concept that is rooted in the fostering of a nurturing atmosphere and relies on the instructor demonstrating exactly what the child needs to do to acquire the skill at hand (Foxx, 2008).

Treating autism spectrum disorder depends also upon the severity of the disorder (CDC, 2021). As the severity can range significantly and diagnosis is not always immediate, parents, educators and doctors need to consider a range of factors that might support a diagnosis or early identification, such as an inability or failure to pay attention to objects when pointed out to them, difficulty with comprehension of other people’s feelings, inability to communicate with others in spite of an interest in them, inability to play pretend games, the seemingly endless repetition of actions, and difficulty adapting to change (CDC, 2021).

The complexity of defining, diagnosing and treating autism spectrum disorder is in part due to the wide variations manifested in the spectrum itself. Children with autism can be high-functioning or low-functioning or anywhere in the middle (CDC, 2021). The range of signs of autism is vast and variations of autism, such as Asperger’s syndrome. Because child development itself is a process taking years, signs can sometimes be missed, and children are not diagnosed until they are older. This presents obstacles both for parents and for educators, but both can also play supportive roles in the development of children, particularly when it comes to offering a nurturing environment in which the child can feel supported (Midouhas, Yogaratnam, Flouri & Charman, 2013).

Because there is no cure for autism, the task of doctors, parents and teachers of children with autism is to assist in their development with special training and care, using approaches that have been developed over the decades (Harris, 2018). As diagnostic criteria of autism have changed over the decades, these approaches have also altered (Foxx, 2008; Harris, 2018). Keys to assessing children with autism include the child’s cognitive abilities and utilization of language skills (Harris, 2018). The better able a child is to self-regulate, the more likely the child is to respond to interventions such as errorless learning (Bloh et al., 2017).

As Midouhas et al. (2013) note, however, adolescents with autism often present with co-occurring psychopathology. Some factors that might impact this co-occurrence include family poverty and household chaos (Midouhas et al., 2013). Chaotic environments in which there is a lack of attention, care and concern provided to the autistic child typically increase the likelihood of the child developing other psychopathological problems over time. The finding of Midouhas et al. (2013) reinforces the essential argument of Bloh et al. (2017) and Foxx (2008), which is that children with autism need special care, attention and positive reinforcement. If this is not forthcoming, their development will be limited. It is especially important, therefore, that stability be provided autistic children both in the school and in the home (Foxx, 2008; Midouhas et al., 2013). Maternal warmth is an important factor in helping autistic children to develop the attributes needed for self-regulation (Midouhas et al., 2013). With these attributes, the teaching role of educators can be facilitated greatly (Bloh et al., 2017).

Emotional stress and the parent-child relationship are very important factors in the development of psychopathology (Midouhas et al., 2013). Positive reinforcement has been identified as crucial way to support the development of children because it gives them a feeling of security, confidence, and esteem (Mueller et al., 2007). Esteem is empowering in the sense that it facilitates the acquisition of self-actualization, according to Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs model and theory of human motivation. To delimit the risk of psychopathology development, the findings of Bloh et al. (2017), Foxx (2008), and Mueller et al. (2007) suggest that parents and teachers should create nurturing environments for children.

Importance to Child and Adolescent Psychopathology

The importance of autism spectrum disorder in child and adolescent psychopathology is that autism can often be mislabeled or misdiagnosed as a separate pathology, such as social anxiety disorder or bipolar disorder (CDC, 2021). It is important for parents and educators as well as doctors to understand that autism spectrum disorder is a unique disorder that can be treated through nurturing interventions tailored to meet the needs of the child. Emotional stress and environmental instability can negatively affect children by preventing them from having their developmental needs met; this is especially damaging for children with autism, as they are already at a developmental disadvantage; these factors contribute to the likelihood of the co-occurrence of psychopathology (Midouhas et al., 2013). With the right diagnosis and intervention, the child’s risk of psychopathology can be reduced. However, it is essential that there be the necessary home life foundation to avoid the onset of psychopathology; unstable homes, and a lack of maternal warmth in particular, can aggravate autism and facilitate the onset of psychopathology. Thus, nurturing environments are called for in numerous studies (Foxx, 2008; Wohr & Scattoni, 2013).

These findings indicate that parents and families have to be very mindful of the developmental needs and limitations of a child with autism. Stability in the home life is going to be very important for the child to prevent the co-occurrence of psychopathology. Thus, it is equally important for the child to be diagnosed early on, and this requires early identification. In homes where there is a lack of structure or emotional warmth, early detection may be missed, unless educators are able to identify signs. However, reliance on cooperation with the family is also going to be needed to address the disorder.